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Anjouan ([ɑ̃.ʒu.ɑ̃]) is an autonomous volcanic island in the Comoro Islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean, part of the Union of the Comoros. It is known in Shikomori as Ndzuani, Ndzuwani or Nzwani, and, until the early twentieth century when the name fell out of general use (although still sometimes used by English-speakers in Zanzibar), in English as Johanna.[4] Historically it was also called Hinzuan or Hanzoan.

Key Information

The town of Mutsamudu

Its chief town is Mutsamudu and, as of 2006, its population is around 277,500. The total area of the island is 424 square kilometers (163 square miles).

History

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See also: History of Comoros

Early and colonial history

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Map of Anjouan (1748) by French hydrographer Jacques Nicolas Bellin.
French Residency in Anjouan, 1900

The first inhabitants of the island were Bantu-speaking peoples from eastern Africa and navigators from Indonesia and Southwest Asia. In the late fifteenth century high status Hadrami Arab immigrants married into the local ruling classes and established a sultanate that extended its control over the entire island and occasionally extending their influence to the neighboring island of Mwali and Mayotte. In 1812, Sultan Alawi bin Husain requested British assistance against Malagasy slavers who were threatening his domain, which was turned down. Nevertheless, the island remained within the British sphere of influence until the late 19th century. In 1886 France, already present in Mayotte, established a protectorate over the island; slavery was abolished in 1899, and in 1912, following the forced abdication of the last sultan, France formally annexed the island.[5]

John Mucknell marooned his enemies on Anjouan in 1644.[6] His ship, the John, was owned by the East India Company, but after ridding himself of opposition in this manner, he turned pirate and returned to Britain.

Anjouan under independent Comoros

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Anjouan joined the State of Comoros when it became independent in 1975, with Ahmed Abdallah as president of the State of Comoros. The island, being a part of the country, has gone through more than 20 coups since independence and has experienced several attempts at secession.

Secessionist/Autonomous Anjouan

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In 1997, the islands of Anjouan and Mohéli seceded from the Comoros. On 3 August 1997, Anjouan declared itself the independent State of Anjouan (État d’Anjouan)[7] with Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim as president. An independence referendum was subsequently held in October, with over 99% voting in favour. The island then asked to be integrated again into the French Republic; but France refused. A constitution was adopted for Anjouan in a referendum on 25 February 1998.[7]

In 1999, Anjouan had internal conflicts and on 1 August of that year, the 80-year-old Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim resigned, transferring power to a national coordinator, Said Abeid. The government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on 9 August 2001. Mohamed Bacar soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country. Despite two coup attempts in the following three months, including one by Abeid, Bacar's government remained in power and was apparently more willing to negotiate with Comoros.

After the creation of the Union, the islands were reunified with Comoros in 2002 and a new Union of the Comoros constitution mandated the election of a President of Anjouan along with presidents for the other two autonomous islands and a President of the Union. Bacar was elected for a 5-year term as President of the island of Anjouan. His term expired on 14 April 2007 and the president of the assembly, Houmadi Caambi, became acting president from 15 April until he was overthrown by forces loyal to Bacar on 10 May.

Peace talks were held between the Comorian and Anjouan governments whereby they agreed to hold free elections in which Mohamed Bacar would stand. Although the Union government delayed the election - citing alleged irregularities and intimidation — Bacar unilaterally printed ballots and held an illegal election in June. The result, due to electoral fraud, was an overwhelming victory of 90 percent.[8] In July 2007, he once again declared the island of Anjouan to be independent of the Comoros.

2008 invasion of Anjouan

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Main article: 2008 invasion of Anjouan
Map of the 2008 invasion of Anjouan by Comoran and African Union troops

In February 2008, the Comoros rejected the African Union's extended sanctions against Anjouan and instead opted for a military solution. In early March, the Comoros armed forces and around 400 international reinforcements from the African Union assembled on the island of Mohéli. Hostilities began on 11 March 2008, when Comorian forces staged an armed incursion on the island but diplomacy continued with an intervention by South African President Thabo Mbeki who attempted to delay the planned invasion to the distinct displeasure of the Comorian government.[9] There were further incursions between 14 March and 16 March 2008 and clashes between local forces loyal to Mohamed Bacar and, presumably, those from the African Union invasion force which then retreated back to Mohéli.

On 19 March 2008, a French military helicopter on a clandestine mission from French-administered Mayotte crashed in the Mozambique Channel close to the city of Sima on Anjouan. Critics of the action allege the helicopter was involved in an attempt to bring Bacar into French exile, and that Bacar was able to hold out so long only because he was protected by the French.[9]

The main operation and, ultimately, the invasion of Anjouan began on the evening of 24 March 2008 when five boats transporting approximately 1,500 soldiers had left Mohéli on their way to Anjouan. In the early hours of 25 March 2008, an amphibious landing was made by Comoran troops supported by contingents from the African Union. The combined forces quickly advanced on the town of Ouani to secure the airfield. After the airport was secured the invasion force apparently split where part of it headed south-west to engage Anjouanais loyalists in the capital, Mutsamudu, and the remainder headed south-east capturing the port of Bambao M'Sanga and the second city of Domoni without resistance.

Mohamed Bacar managed to escape to Mayotte by 26 March to seek political asylum. He was subsequently held in custody there by the French administration and brought to the island of Réunion, where he was charged for entering French territory illegally and possession of weapons. On 15 May 2008, France rejected Bacar's request for asylum but the French refugee office ruled that the ousted leader could not be extradited to Comoros because of the risk of persecution. France's State Secretary for Overseas, Yves Jégo, said France would support the Comoran government's efforts. "We will continue to act in consultation with the Comoros so that the law can be applied and Colonel Bacar can be tried."[10]

Post-invasion Anjouan

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Following the March 2008 invasion of Anjouan, the interim president of Anjouan was Laili Zamane Abdou[2] In May 2008, The Constitutional Court of the Comoros approved five candidates to contest the Anjouan presidential election of 15 June and invalidated the candidacy of Mohamed Bacar.[11] Comoran President A.A. Sambi supported engineer Moussa Toybou for the position who won a bare plurality in the initial balloting. In the second round of the elections held on 29 June, he was contested by political veteran Mohamed Djaanfari but won with 52% of the vote. The Presidency of Anjouan was later transformed into the position of Governor of Anjouan.[12]

Flags

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Main article: Flag of Anjouan

Geography

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Map of Anjouan
Satellite imagery of Anjouan, 2022

Anjouan is part of the Comoros Islands located in the Mozambique Channel. It consists of the eroded remains of a large shield volcano that formed in the Pleistocene epoch. Eruptions from fissure vents spanned in three directions, followed by a long interval of erosion. Renewed volcanism produced a series of lava flows that filled deep valleys and flooded areas along the coast.[13] The island is known for its steep, mountainous terrain and black sand beaches. Mount Ntringui is the highest point in the island of Anjouan with an elevation of 1,595 m (5,233 ft) above sea level. The second most important (and the most populous) city on Anjouan is Domoni.[citation needed] The main strategic area is the airfield at Ouani, with its 1.5 km runway, and the bay with the coastal road from the chief town Mutsamudu in the east out to the city of Sima in the west.

Climate

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The highs on the island range from 27 to 32 °C (81 to 90 °F) year-round. The weather is warm and humid from December to April and slightly cooler from May to November. The climate is generally much cooler in the center of the island, on the highest mountains, and generally warmer in the North-Eastern region, North of Domoni.

Flora and fauna

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Main article: Comoros forests

Anjouan is home to a diversity of plant life, much of which is edible. The island is abundant in cassava, bananas, mangoes, soursop, avocados, oranges, taro, and vanilla.

The Anjouan scops owl is a rare owl. The Anjouan sparrowhawk is a possibly extinct subspecies of the Frances's goshawk. Lemurs are commonly found in the mountainous regions of the island. Two species of lizards, Flexiseps johannae and Paroedura sanctijohannis, are named after the island, and are found on the island and elsewhere in the Comoros.[14][15]

Important Bird Area

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A 6,850 ha tract encompassing the highlands of the island has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of Comoro olive pigeons, Comoro blue pigeons, Anjouan scops owls, Malagasy harriers, Madagascar brush warblers, Comoro thrushes, Anjouan sunbirds and red-headed fodies.[16]

Protected areas

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Mount Ntringui National Park was established in 2010, and covers an area of 79.14 km2 in the center of the island.[17] The park includes Mount Ntringui and Mount Trindrini, Anjouan's highest and second-highest peaks, as well as Lake Dzialandzé, Anjouan's largest lake, and the Moya Forest, Anjouan's largest remaining forest.[18]

Shisiwani National Park is a marine national park, which protects the coastal waters, including coral reefs, around the Sima Peninsula. It was established in 2010, and has an area of 64.97 km2.[19]

Culture

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Teaching Arabic in a prescolair class. Though students speak Shikomori, they commonly learn Arabic and French in the classroom.

Anjouan is the island with the highest population density in Comoros. The main religion is Sunni Islam. Although the island is filled with large numbers of mosques, religious observance is not as strict as it is in many other countries observing Islam. The Comoros national state-owned TV station broadcasts locally.[20] Anjouan also operates its own radio station.

Language

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The people of Anjouan speak Shindzuani, a dialect of Shikomori. Though they have similar grammatical structures and much shared vocabulary, Shindzuani varies greatly from the dialect of the capital island, Shingazija, and linguists have debated whether they should truly be considered the same language. Public schools and government functions are carried out in French, but in daily life, Shindzuani is spoken almost exclusively. Additionally, many people living on Anjouan are fairly familiar with Arabic through language classes and the reading on the Quran from an early age. It is not uncommon for students to attend Quranic school in addition to their normal schooling.

Clothing

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Anjouan is known for the wearing of the Shiromani, a sheet-like article of clothing women wrap around their body. The Shiromani is often red, expressing the color of the island of Anjouan.

Cuisine

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The local cuisine has a great deal of Arab and French influence. Spices such as turmeric, cloves, and cumin are widely used. Meals common to Anjouan include fish with coconut rice, pigeon pea stew, cooked taro dishes, and cassava dishes. The cassava leaves are eaten just as commonly as the roots, cooked with coconut milk and often paired with rice as the dish "Mataba". Hot peppers are also common in the form of a hot sauce called "putu", which is prepared by grinding fresh peppers together on stone. Spice level and general flavor of putu greatly depending on family and region.

Different regions of Anjouan are known for producing different crops, with clove trees filling the Northeast corner of the island and the central mountainous region being rich with lychee fruit trees. Bananas, jackfruit, breadfruit, mangoes, papaya, red guava, green guava, a variety of lime, and small oranges are commonly found all over the island. Vanilla is grown by some for selling and exporting, but is not commonly consumed by Comorians themselves.

Economy

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The island uses the Comorian franc as a currency which is printed by the Bank of France and issued by the central bank of the country, the Central Bank of the Comoros. Many people on the island farm ylang-ylang, vanilla, and cloves. The economy of the island is dependent on agriculture and related industries. These industries employ over 80% of the workforce. The island's main food staple is rice, all of which must be imported. Anjouan is the world's primary exporter of ylang-ylang oil, an ingredient in almost all perfumes.[21]

Banking system

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As part of the Union of the Comoros, the banking system of Anjouan is regulated by the Central Bank of the Comoros, created in 1981. Anjouan, pursuant to the Regulation of Banks and Comparable Establishments of 1999, licensed more than 300 offshore banks. All of the shell banks and other entities are located offshore and have no permanent presence in the Comoros. Anjouan sold the right to issue bank licenses and delegated most of its authority to operate and regulate the offshore business to private, non-Comoran domiciled parties.

In 2002, after Anjouan's reentry into the Union of the Comoros as an autonomous island, Anjouan's Offshore Finance Authority was established to promote the island as a tax haven to attract foreign capital.

In 2005, new laws were passed and all of the banking licenses issued there previous to that date were canceled. Those that could show proper due diligence were reset by the newly rearranged Offshore Finance Authority, monopolized by Anjouan Corporate Institution Limited (ACIL) since 2003, which has claimed the authority as registered agent for all International Business Companies and banking license issuance on the island since that time and authorized directly by the Legislative Assembly in Anjouan. The company claiming to sell licenses previous to 2003 was sued in the London High Court on behalf of the Anjouan Government and lost, The High Court of Justice in London confirmed after seeing all the legal documentation that Anjouan Corporate Institution Limited (ACIL), was legally entitled to operate the offshore business, with full consent of the Anjouan Government. All Banking Licenses were being issued as a Class B Banking License and have terms of one year, which were renewable as long as no complaint had been made against the Bank in violation of anti-money laundering regulations, fraud, or Banking laws.

The Central Bank of Comoros has never commented the Anjouan Offshore Finance Authority’s activity. At the same time, on the Central Bank website, in the section "Flash News" from April 4, 2014, it was mentioned: "The Central Bank of Comores recalls that up to date, no license has been delivered for the exercise of financial offshore activities in one of the islands of the Union of the Comoros".[22] So the financial licenses issued by "Anjouan’s Offshore Finance Authority" and "Anjouan Corporate Services Limited" were not taken in consideration by the authorities of the Union of Comoros.

It has been told that Anjouan authorities abandoned the development of the offshore financial sector since the summer of 2008 but, based on the orders 001-008 of 2005 of Autonomous Island of Anjouan, Anjouan’s Offshore Finance Authority is yet maintaining the possibility to make a request for the different types of licenses through their website.[23] Currently there are nominated less than 50 institutions having the active licenses. However, the law creating non-financial offshore companies was legally adopted by the Parliament of Anjouan and non-financial firms registered in Anjouan are recognized legally.[24]

Indian Ocean Sunset on Anjouan Island

Tourism

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  • The citadel of Mutsamudu, the market of the city
  • The mausoleum of President Ahmed Abdallah in Domoni
  • Mount Ntringui National Park which includes the Dzialandze lake and the Mount Ntringui
  • The region of Sima where there are many farms of perfume plants which give their nickname to the islands of Comoros.
  • The Tratringa waterfalls, at Bambao Mtrouni, and the river of the same name.
  • The beach of Moya and the pass of the same name that children ride down on soapboxes.
  • The river of Jomani and the Cap Mangeat at the entrance of Domoni.
  • The Tratringua waterfall at Ongoni-Marahani
  • The wall of Momoni (uhura wa muji) in Domoni

Government

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Politics

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Presidential elections were held in Anjouan on 15 June following the 2008 invasion of Anjouan to oust Mohamed Bacar as President of Anjouan.[25] About 128,000 people were eligible to vote.[26] Mohamed Djaanfari, a former vice-president of the Assembly of the Union of the Comoros, and Moussa Toybou, a former minister in Said Mohamed Djohar's government, advanced to the runoff round held on 29 June. The final official result, as confirmed by the constitutional court on 3 July 2008, declared Toybou the winner with 52.42% of the vote to Djaanfari's 47.58%.

December 20, 2010 Anissi Chamsidine is elected Governor of the island of Anjouan.[27] He works for a full reconciliation with the Union of Comoros. To show this will, the separatist flag was dropped and replaced by a new flag with the same symbol than that of the Union of Comoros (the Moslem crescent and four stars symbolizing the four islands of the archipelago). Henceforth the leader of the autonomous island of Anjouan is named Governor instead of President and the Commissioners instead of Ministers.

Military

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Anjouan invested heavily in its national security under Mohamed Bacar. Main components were the Gendarmerie commanded by Commander Abdou, the younger brother of Bacar. A battalion size militia of approximately 500 backed the Gendarmerie. Since the eviction of Bacar in March 2008, the Anjouanais defence forces are led by the Government of the Union of the Comoros.

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Anjouan

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
![Anjouan in the Comoros](./assets/Nzwani_in_Comoros_claimshatchedclaims_hatched Anjouan, known locally as Nzwani, is an autonomous island in the Union of the , located in the western approximately 300 kilometers off the coast of . Covering an area of 424 square kilometers, it is the second-largest island in the Comoros archipelago after and features a rugged volcanic with fertile soils supporting . The island's capital and largest city is , which serves as a key port and economic hub. Anjouan exhibits the highest among the Comoros islands, reflecting its concentrated settlement patterns and limited . Its economy centers on subsistence and export-oriented , with principal crops including ylang-ylang for production, , cloves, and other spices that contribute significantly to national exports. Historically, Anjouan has been defined by recurrent separatist aspirations, most prominently in 1997 when island leaders declared independence from the Comoros federal government, seeking reintegration with amid grievances over economic neglect and political centralization; this prompted international , federal restructuring in 2001, and a 2008 African Union-backed invasion to remove a defiant autonomous president.

Geography

Location and Topography

Anjouan, known locally as Nzwani, is a situated in the southwestern as part of the archipelago. It occupies a position at approximately 12°13′S and 44°26′E , making it the easternmost of the three principal islands comprising the Union of the —Grande to the west and Mohéli to its northwest. The island lies within the , between the African mainland and , with a total land area of 424 square kilometers. The of Anjouan is characterized by rugged, mountainous formed by volcanic activity, featuring a central with steep slopes, deeply incised valleys, and sharp ridges. The island's highest is Mount Ntringui, reaching 1,595 meters above , which dominates the interior landscape. Coastal areas exhibit irregular shorelines with limited sandy beaches, transitioning inland to fertile volcanic soils interspersed with plateaus and escarpments. This volcanic origin contributes to the island's fertility in lower s, though and steep gradients limit accessible flatland.

Climate and Environmental Conditions

Anjouan exhibits a tropical climate classified as Aw (tropical savanna) under the Köppen-Geiger system, featuring distinct wet and dry seasons. The wet season spans December to April, driven by the southeast trade winds, while the dry season extends from May to November. Mean annual temperatures average 24.6 °C in lowland areas such as Mutsamudu, with coastal highs reaching 28–31 °C during the wet season and lows around 23 °C in the dry period. Annual precipitation totals approximately 1,282 mm, concentrated in the wet months, though orographic effects from the island's volcanic topography enhance rainfall in upland regions. The island's , rising to over 1,600 meters at peaks like Mount Ntingui, introduces microclimatic variations, with highlands cooler and wetter than coastal zones due to adiabatic cooling and increased condensation. Comoros-wide data indicate a historical warming trend, with surface air temperatures rising since the late , potentially intensifying heat stress and altering patterns. Temperature patterns are modulated by and , with higher altitudes mitigating extremes but remaining vulnerable to broader shifts. Environmentally, Anjouan comprises volcanic soils that support diverse ecosystems but suffer from acute degradation. has reduced forest cover by about 80% in recent decades, primarily from slash-and-burn agriculture and charcoal production, resulting in severe , sedimentation of watercourses, and the of roughly 40 of 50 perennial rivers. This loss threatens endemic , including critically endangered fruit bats with populations estimated at around 1,300 individuals archipelago-wide, confined to remnant forests that serve as key refugia. Coastal areas face erosion and inundation risks from sea-level rise and intensified cyclones linked to .

History

Pre-Colonial and Sultanate Period

The island of Anjouan, known locally as Nzwani, was settled between 750 and 1000 CE by East African groups speaking the Shinzwani , establishing nucleated communities focused on farming and , initially centered in areas like Sima. These early inhabitants integrated into broader coastal networks, with archaeological evidence indicating small-scale settlements similar to those on the East African mainland. Islam was adopted through maritime trade contacts, with the construction of mosques in Sima and Domoni dating to the , later expanded between the 13th and 15th centuries. This period marked the emergence of Islamic city-states, blending local African traditions with influences from and Persian traders, including the importation of goods like and iron in exchange for local products such as cowries, , and . By the , centralized political institutions formed under the al-Maduwa dynasty, establishing the Sultanate of Anjouan and shifting the capital from Sima to Domoni. The dynasty intermarried with elites from Pate and Hadramaut by the , consolidating power; notable rulers included Abdallah I in the late 18th century and Salim bin Alawi, who reigned from 1837 to 1852. Anjouan prospered as a key trans-shipment port in the western , with Mutsamudu harbor operational by the 1630s; records show that approximately 90% of the 400 English ships passing between 1601 and 1834 stopped there for provisioning, underscoring its role in global trade networks sustained by an agro-pastoral economy. The sultanate maintained autonomy through diplomacy and tribute systems until the late 19th century.

Colonial Era under French Rule

Anjouan established a protectorate relationship with France on April 21, 1886, through a convention signed in Mutsamudu by Sultan Abdallah ben Sultan Salime (Abdallah III) and French representative Gerville-Reache, commandant of Mayotte. The agreement placed the island under French protection amid internal civil strife and external threats, granting France authority over foreign relations, the right to judge disputes involving French citizens in French courts, provisions for land concessions to French industrialists, and oversight of sultanate succession in cases lacking direct heirs. Article XIII committed Anjouan to eventual abolition of slavery, though enforcement lagged until 1899. Sultan Abdallah III had sought French backing against pro-slavery factions, transforming the monarchy into a nominal entity under growing French influence. French administrative control solidified in 1887 after the sultan protested treaty discrepancies; on March 22, French troops landed, installing a resident by March 26 and imposing a supplementary on October 8 that created a joint Franco-Anjouanese court and established a French school. Internal resistance persisted, exemplified by a pro-slavery revolt in 1884 and, following Abdallah III's death on February 2, 1891, a broader uprising of slaves and peasants that prompted French intervention on April 23; quelled the revolt and installed Saïd Omar as a . The ate persisted under French oversight, with rulers like Said Muhamed serving until his in 1909, as concessionary companies such as La Société Coloniale de Bambao exploited island lands for plantations from 1907 onward. By July 25, 1912, Anjouan was formally annexed into the French colonial structure, integrated first into the Colonie de et Dépendances in 1908 and then administratively attached to , ending the sultanate's autonomy. Slavery's abolition in 1899 facilitated labor shifts toward colonial , while French residents directed , reducing local sultans to ceremonial roles. In 1947, Anjouan, as part of the archipelago, attained status as a French overseas , gaining representation in the but remaining under metropolitan administration until decolonization pressures mounted in the mid-20th century.

Integration into Independent Comoros

Following the December 22, 1974, , in which voters on Anjouan, , and Mohéli approved separation from —contrasting with Mayotte's rejection—Anjouan was incorporated into the newly declared Federal Islamic Republic of the upon the unilateral independence proclamation on July 6, 1975. formally transferred over the three islands on December 31, 1975, establishing Anjouan as one of three semi-autonomous islands within a federal structure designed to accommodate local governance while maintaining national unity. The federal system granted each island, including Anjouan, its own president and , with powers over local affairs such as , , and economic development, while , defense, and currency remained centralized. , elected as federal president in May 1975, oversaw the initial integration, though his government faced immediate instability, including a coup by in August 1975 that installed a revolutionary council emphasizing socialist policies and island-level administrations. Anjouan's local leadership participated in this framework, leveraging the island's and perfume essence exports to contribute to national revenue, though economic disparities with fueled underlying tensions not yet manifesting as . A 1977 referendum under Soilih affirmed the federal structure with 95% approval across the islands, reinforcing Anjouan's formal ties despite the regime's nationalizations and purges. Soilih's overthrow in a May 1978 coup, backed by mercenaries, restored Abdallah in October 1978, who promulgated a new maintaining while centralizing executive power. This period saw Anjouan benefiting from federal aid for , such as port expansions in , but persistent poverty and unequal resource distribution from central revenues sowed seeds of discontent that integration efforts failed to fully resolve.

Secessionist Declarations and Conflicts

In July 1997, escalating discontent with the federal government's economic mismanagement, corruption, and unequal resource distribution fueled protests across Anjouan, culminating in demonstrations on July 6 during the archipelago's anniversary celebrations. Local leaders, citing chronic underdevelopment and fiscal neglect from the capital in Moroni on , capitalized on the unrest to advance separatist aims, initially expressing desires to rejoin as an overseas territory. On August 3, 1997, Anjouan unilaterally declared , establishing the Republic of Anjouan under provisional president Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim, a 75-year-old Koranic who had led the separatist push. A referendum on October 26, 1997, affirmed the , with over 99% of participants—amid a reported 94% turnout—voting in favor of independence from . The federal government, backed by troops from , launched an invasion attempt on September 7, 1997, to suppress the movement, but withdrew after clashes that resulted in at least 12 civilian deaths and 30 to 40 soldier casualties. Neither the Organization of African Unity nor any international body recognized Anjouan's declaration, imposing diplomatic isolation and exacerbating economic hardship through trade disruptions and aid shortfalls. Parallel on Moheli on August 11, 1997, amplified the crisis, but Anjouan's internal fractures soon emerged, including factional rivalries over leadership and resources. By 1999, amid ongoing skirmishes and governance breakdowns, Abdallah Ibrahim resigned on August 1, handing power to a transitional council amid violence that further destabilized the island. These conflicts, rooted in local power struggles rather than unified separatist ideology, persisted without resolution until broader reconciliation efforts in the early , though underlying grievances regarding federal overreach endured.

2008 Military Intervention and Reintegration

In early 2008, the authorized military intervention in Anjouan under Operation Democracy to enforce compliance with the ' federal authority after , the island's self-proclaimed president, refused to relinquish power following a disputed 2007 election invalidated by both the AU and central government. , a former gendarme who had seized control in 2001 and maintained rule amid allegations of suppressing dissent, rejected calls for new polls, prompting the AU to endorse force on March 22, 2008, after diplomatic efforts failed. The invasion commenced in the early morning of March 25, , involving around 1,500 troops—primarily Tanzanian with contingents from and —supported by approximately 400 soldiers in an amphibious assault targeting key sites like the capital . Forces quickly overran main towns and ports, with Union President declaring the island under federal control by day's end; initial reports indicated minimal casualties on the invading side, though sporadic clashes occurred. Bacar evaded capture during the operation and fled by speedboat to the nearby French-administered island of on March 26, where he sought political asylum but was detained by French authorities pending requests from . Reintegration followed swiftly, with the Union government installing Laili Zamane Abdou as interim president of Anjouan to oversee transition. Presidential elections proceeded on June 15 and 29, 2008, resulting in the victory of Ikilou Dhoinine, who aligned with federal structures and affirmed Anjouan's autonomy within the Comoros Union, thereby restoring constitutional order without further immediate secessionist challenges. The mission, MAES, continued monitoring to prevent relapse, emphasizing enforcement of the 2001 Fomboni Accord's power-sharing framework amid persistent island-central tensions.

Post-2008 Developments and Ongoing Tensions

Following the African Union-backed intervention that ousted secessionist president , presidential elections were held on Anjouan on June 15 and 29, 2008, resulting in the victory of Moussa Toybou, an engineer backed by the Union of the Comoros government, with approximately 60% of the vote in the runoff. These polls were assessed as generally free and fair by international observers, including the U.S. State Department, facilitating Anjouan's formal reintegration into the federal structure and averting immediate further conflict. Toybou's administration focused on reconstruction and alignment with union policies, though underlying grievances over resource allocation and persisted. The federal system established by the 2001 constitution, which rotates the union presidency among the islands and grants semi-autonomous status to Anjouan, , and Mohéli, has continued to breed inter-island rivalries, with Anjouan officials frequently accusing the central government—often dominated by interests—of fiscal neglect and unequal revenue sharing from exports and remittances. Economic disparities exacerbate these issues, as Anjouan's GDP per capita lags behind the union average, contributing to rates exceeding 30% and irregular migration to nearby , fueling resentment toward perceived central overreach. Secessionist sentiments, rooted in historical bids for independence or French association, linger among fringe groups and opposition figures who argue the union stifles local development, though overt movements have remained subdued without external support post-2008. Tensions flared notably in October 2018 amid protests in Anjouan's capital, , against union president Azali Assoumani's proposed constitutional referendum to extend term limits and consolidate power, which locals viewed as undermining island autonomy. Clashes between demonstrators—some armed—and lasted several days, prompting civilian evacuations, heavy gunfire exchanges, and dozens of arrests, with unconfirmed reports of fatalities; the unrest highlighted latent anti-union animosities without explicit secessionist demands. The central government deployed reinforcements to restore order, framing the events as localized banditry rather than political rebellion. As of 2024, Anjouan remains integrated but strained, with periodic complaints from island leaders over budget delays and enforcement of union laws on issues like Islamic dress codes, which some view as culturally imposed from . While large-scale secessionism has not reemerged, the absence of equitable development—evidenced by persistent rates above 40% on the island—sustains low-level discontent, occasionally amplified by opposition campaigns during island gubernatorial elections in cycles like 2013 and 2019. International assessments note that without addressing causal factors like resource inequities, the risk of renewed instability endures, though military interventions are unlikely absent a Bacar-like figure.

Demographics

The population of Anjouan was recorded at 321,000 in the 2017 national conducted by the Institut National de la Statistique et des Enquêtes Économiques (INSEED), comprising 42.4% of the ' total of 758,316 at that time. Projections based on this estimate Anjouan's at 368,000 in 2024, maintaining its share of roughly 42% of the national total, which reached 868,767 amid an growth rate of approximately 2.7%. Anjouan exhibits the highest population density among the Comoros islands, at approximately 868 inhabitants per square kilometer across its 424 square kilometers of land area, compared to the national average of 474 per square kilometer. This density has intensified over time, rising from around 575 per square kilometer in 2004 when the population stood at 248,850. Population trends mirror national patterns of rapid growth driven by high rates (around 4 children per ) and a youthful demographic structure, with over 50% under age 20 as of 2017. From 2003 to 2017, Anjouan's population grew by about 28%, outpacing earlier decades but constrained by emigration to neighboring and mainland due to economic pressures and limited . Urbanization remains low, with only about 30% of residents in urban areas like , exacerbating rural overcrowding and resource strains. Recent national growth has moderated to 1.9% annually by 2023, potentially signaling similar deceleration on Anjouan amid declining and outward migration.

Ethnic and Linguistic Composition

The population of Anjouan is overwhelmingly Comorian, consisting mainly of ethnic groups including Antalote, Cafre, Makoa, Oimatsaha, and Sakalava, which collectively represent a fusion of Bantu African, Arab-Persian, Malagasy, Malay, and other ancestries resulting from centuries of migration, trade, and intermarriage. These groups share common cultural and historical ties across the archipelago, with no significant island-specific ethnic distinctions documented in national demographic profiles, though Anjouan exhibits relatively high that amplifies local clan-based social structures. Minor foreign-resident communities, such as Europeans and Indians, exist but constitute less than 1% of the island's residents, primarily in urban centers like . The dominant language is the Ndzuwani (or Nzwani) dialect of Comorian (Shikomori), a Southwestern Indian Ocean Bantu language closely related to , incorporating substantial loanwords from Islamic scholarship and trade influences, and spoken by nearly all inhabitants in daily life. French functions as the language of administration, education, and limited elite communication, while holds official status mainly for religious and ceremonial purposes, with literacy in it varying widely. Dialectal variations within Ndzuwani reflect local tied to geography and clans, but mutual intelligibility with other Comorian dialects remains high.

Religion and Social Structure

The population of Anjouan is overwhelmingly Muslim, with approximately 98% adhering to of the , reflecting the broader demographic of the Union where serves as the state religion and shapes national identity. This dominance stems from historical and Persian influences dating to the , integrated with local Bantu and Austronesian customs, though proselytization by non-Islamic faiths remains illegal under national law, limiting religious diversity. The Christian minority, estimated at under 1% island-wide, consists primarily of Roman Catholics and is concentrated in urban areas such as , often comprising foreign residents or descendants rather than native converts, who face social ostracism and legal barriers to public practice. Social organization in Anjouan follows a , where descent, , and property rights trace primarily through the female line, conferring women over and decisions despite Islamic patriarchal norms in public life. This structure, rooted in pre-Islamic African traditions, coexists with post-marriage and emphasizes networks (shirikisho) for mutual support, dispute resolution, and economic cooperation in rural villages. Society stratifies into three historical classes: noble lineages descending from sultans and traders who intermarried locals, forming an with claims to prestige; free commoners comprising the majority engaged in and ; and former slaves (now integrated but often marginalized), reflecting lingering inequalities from the 19th-century . roles reinforce male dominance in politics and religion, yet matrilineality provides women informal power, as evidenced by their control over wealth and higher status in proceedings under customary (ada) . loyalties and age-grade associations further underpin social cohesion, influencing everything from alliances to conflict mediation, though and migration have eroded traditional hierarchies since the 1990s.

Government and Politics

Administrative Framework within Comoros

Anjouan, officially designated as the Autonomous Island of Ndzuwani, operates within the Union of the Comoros under a framework of partial autonomy granted by the Union's 2001 Constitution (as amended in 2009 and later). This structure emerged from the 2000 Fomboni Declaration, which aimed to resolve separatist tensions by devolving significant powers to the islands while maintaining a federal union. The Constitution defines the Union as comprising three autonomous islands—Grande Comore (Ngazidja), Anjouan (Ndzuwani), and Mohéli (Mwali)—each functioning as a territorial community with elected executive and deliberative organs responsible for self-governance in non-exclusive federal domains. The island's executive branch is headed by the President of Anjouan, directly elected by among island residents for a single five-year term, non-renewable consecutively. The president appoints a and oversees local administration, including implementation of island policies. Legislative functions are performed by the Island Council (Conseil de l'Île), a unicameral body with 33 members elected proportionally from multi-member constituencies for five-year terms, empowered to enact laws on devolved matters such as local taxation, , and environmental management. This dual structure ensures island-level decision-making, subordinate to federal oversight in areas like and . Devolved powers to Anjouan encompass education, health services, agriculture, fisheries, tourism, and local infrastructure, allowing the island to tailor policies to its 300,000-plus population and volcanic terrain. Exclusive federal competencies include defense, foreign policy, currency, citizenship, and higher justice, with the Union President—elected nationally but rotating island eligibility until 2018 amendments—exercising veto over island acts conflicting with constitutional principles. Anjouan's Fundamental Law, adopted on March 10, 2002, operationalizes this autonomy by detailing electoral procedures, administrative divisions into prefectures (e.g., Domoni, Mutsamudu), and fiscal mechanisms, while prohibiting secessionist actions. Judicial administration features island courts handling local disputes under Comorian customary, civil, and Islamic law, subject to appeal in federal tribunals. This arrangement, though stabilizing post-2008 reintegration, has faced implementation challenges due to resource disparities and occasional federal-island disputes over revenue sharing.

Autonomy Arrangements and Federal Relations

The autonomy of Anjouan as part of the Union of the is enshrined in the 2001 (revised in 2009), which establishes a comprising three autonomous islands—Grande Comore (Ngazidja), Anjouan (Ndzuwani), and Mohéli (Mwali)—with the Union exercising sovereignty while delegating substantial self-governance to each island. Article 1 defines the Union as a incorporating these autonomous entities, and Article 7 mandates that islands administer and manage their affairs freely in accordance with the Constitution, explicitly prohibiting or actions undermining . Anjouan's , serving as the island's executive head equivalent to a president, is elected by direct for a five-year term, renewable once, overseeing island-specific institutions including a local assembly. Powers are divided to preserve island autonomy in domestic matters while centralizing national competencies at the Union level. Under Article 9, Anjouan handles local administration, policing, infrastructure, , fisheries, and environmental management, with to enact budgets and impose taxes as per Article 11. The Union, conversely, controls defense, , , , and systems (Articles 12 and 31), ensuring uniformity in sovereignty-related domains. Union law supersedes island law where conflicts arise (Article 8), and the presidency of the Union rotates among the islands on a non-consecutive basis, with the Union president elected nationally for a five-year term from candidates of the designated island. Federal relations are mediated through institutional mechanisms to resolve jurisdictional disputes, including the , which guarantees the distribution of powers and adjudicates conflicts between Union and island authorities (Article 36). This framework, born from post-secession reconciliation agreements like the 2000 Fomboni Declaration, aims to balance with cohesion, though enforcement has periodically tested inter-island coordination on resource sharing and policy alignment.

Political Controversies and Secessionist Legacy

The secessionist movement on Anjouan emerged in 1997 amid widespread dissatisfaction with the central government in , exacerbated by economic stagnation, corruption, and perceived neglect of the island's interests. On August 3, 1997, Anjouan declared unilateral independence from the Union, following protests that began on July 6 during the archipelago's independence anniversary celebrations. A held on October 26, 1997, saw over 99% of voters approve separation, though the vote's legitimacy was contested by the Comorian government and international observers due to low turnout reports and lack of broader recognition. Mohéli followed suit shortly after, highlighting systemic grievances rooted in post-independence centralization that favored at the expense of peripheral islands. Leadership transitions fueled internal controversies, with initial secessionist figure Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim ousted in 1998 amid factional violence, paving the way for Mohamed Bacar's rise through a controversial marred by allegations of and . Bacar's regime, while nominally reintegrated under the 2001 Fomboni Accord that established a federal structure granting islands greater autonomy, devolved into authoritarianism, including suppression of opposition and refusal to relinquish power after his term expired in 2006. Negotiations brokered by the and repeatedly stalled, as Bacar exploited ethnic and economic divides, amassing a force estimated at 500 fighters by 2008. These dynamics underscored deeper causal factors, such as the failure of Comorian democratization to address island-specific fiscal disparities, where Anjouan's and ylang-ylang exports generated revenue siphoned centrally without proportional returns. The 2008 crisis culminated in Operation Democracy, an amphibious assault launched on by Comorian forces supported by 1,500 African Union troops from Tanzania, Sudan, and Senegal, with logistical aid from , to oust Bacar after he rigged local elections and defied court rulings. Bacar fled to , where he was arrested by French authorities on September 16, 2008, but the intervention's legacy includes criticism for civilian casualties—estimated at up to 20—and temporary displacement, though it restored federal control and enabled Ikilou Dhoinine's uncontested presidency. International involvement, while credited with preventing fragmentation, has been faulted for prioritizing geopolitical stability over resolving underlying economic incentives for secession, as external actors like maintained influence without addressing Comoros' chronic instability. Post-reintegration, secessionist sentiments persist as a latent force, evident in sporadic unrest such as the October 2018 armed clashes on Anjouan between rebels and government troops, which killed at least five and lacked clear demands but reflected enduring distrust of Moroni's governance. Political controversies continue, including disputed elections and human rights concerns like arbitrary detentions of activists, perpetuating a cycle where federal arrangements fail to mitigate grievances over resource allocation and autonomy. Analyses attribute this legacy to unaddressed performance disenchantment—Anjouan's relative prosperity undermined by central predation—rather than mere elite machinations, with sources like academic studies emphasizing how external decisions often overrode local aspirations without causal remedies. Despite formal unity, Anjouan's history illustrates how secessionism endures as a rational response to irredentist federalism in micro-states prone to elite capture.

Economy

Primary Sectors and Resources

The economy of Anjouan relies predominantly on and artisanal fishing as primary sectors, mirroring patterns across the but with a pronounced emphasis on export-oriented cash crops suited to the island's volcanic soils and . Agriculture engages the vast majority of the labor force, focusing on subsistence staples like , bananas, and alongside high-value exports such as ylang-ylang, , and cloves, which collectively underpin most of the island's foreign exchange earnings. Anjouan stands out as the global primary producer of ylang-ylang oil, distilled from the flowers of trees cultivated extensively on its terraced highlands, with production facilities supporting distillation and export. and plantations, often intercropped with crops, provide additional , though yields fluctuate due to variability and limited ; these spices, along with ylang-ylang , historically account for over 80% of ' export value, with Anjouan's contributions significant given its share. rearing, including , goats, and , supplements agricultural output but remains small-scale and geared toward local consumption. Fishing operates mainly as coastal artisanal activity, targeting species, , and using traditional methods like handlines and traps, sustaining coastal communities but constrained by risks and inadequate infrastructure. The island's offers untapped marine potential, yet capture remains low at under 1,000 metric tons annually for Anjouan-specific efforts, with communities increasingly adopting co-management to curb illegal fishing. Natural resources are limited to fertile soils, residual forests for timber and spice harvesting, and minor deposits of construction aggregates like and ; no commercially viable minerals or hydrocarbons exist, reinforcing dependence on renewable biological assets. pressures from agricultural expansion threaten these, prompting localized conservation tied to .

Banking System and Financial Issues

The banking system in Anjouan operates within the broader framework of the Union of the , where the Central Bank of the Comoros, established in 1981, serves as the primary monetary authority responsible for regulating financial institutions and issuing the , which is pegged to the at a fixed rate of 1 to 491.97 francs. Local commercial banking is limited, with few branches of national banks such as Banque pour l'Industrie et le Commerce-Comores providing basic services like deposits and loans, though access remains constrained by low and infrastructure deficits on the island. Anjouan's attempts to develop an independent offshore financial sector, particularly during and after its 1997 secession declaration, involved the creation of the Anjouan Offshore Finance Authority (AOFA) in to issue banking licenses for international operations, including services, with low capital requirements and tax incentives aimed at attracting foreign entities. However, this initiative has been marred by irregularities, as the of the Comoros has repeatedly stated it does not recognize AOFA-issued licenses, viewing them as lacking legal validity under national law, and has issued public warnings against their use for activities like forex trading or gaming. The International Chamber of Commerce's Financial Investigation Bureau has documented numerous reports of and non-compliance stemming from Anjouan-registered banks, including unauthorized operations and failure to adhere to anti-money laundering standards. Financial issues in Anjouan are exacerbated by the legacy of secessionist conflicts, which from 1997 to 2008 led to economic isolation, a collapse in public services, and mounting wage arrears that deteriorated fiscal management across the Comoros. Political instability, including the 2008 invasion to reintegrate the island, disrupted revenue flows and foreign aid, contributing to persistent underdevelopment in the banking sector with weak oversight and vulnerability to illicit finance. Comoros-wide challenges, such as inadequate anti-money laundering enforcement despite a 2004 law, further undermine Anjouan's financial stability, with the U.S. Department of State noting limited supervisory capacity and risks from offshore entities operating outside central bank purview. These factors perpetuate high poverty rates and reliance on remittances, limiting domestic credit growth and investment.

Poverty, Migration, and Development Challenges

Anjouan, like the broader , grapples with acute , with national estimates indicating that approximately 36% of the population lives below the poverty line as of recent assessments, a figure that has shown limited decline despite . Island-specific data from earlier surveys peg Anjouan's poverty incidence at 38.4% in 2004, reflecting entrenched rural and dependence on amid volatile commodity prices for exports like and ylang-ylang. These conditions are exacerbated by low GDP per capita, estimated at around $1,527 nominally for in 2024, underscoring structural barriers to income generation in isolated island economies. Migration from Anjouan constitutes a primary mechanism for economic distress, with the island serving as a key departure point for perilous sea voyages to the French territory of via small, overloaded boats known as kwassa-kwassa. This pattern, driven by unemployment rates hovering around 12% historically and inadequate public services, results in significant human costs, including drownings, as migrants seek employment and healthcare unavailable locally. Remittances from communities in and partially offset but fail to stem outflows, with nearly half of 's comprising Comorian-origin residents, highlighting the scale of cross-border movement fueled by opportunity disparities. Development challenges in Anjouan stem from geographic isolation, frail , and institutional weaknesses that perpetuate a cycle of low productivity and vulnerability. Inter-island maritime connectivity remains unreliable, hampering and access to markets, while lags, with minigrid initiatives only recently addressing chronic power shortages that stifle agro-processing and small enterprises. Post-secession instability, including the 1997-2008 period of autonomy attempts, imposed and disrupted investments, compounding reliance on aid and limiting diversification beyond primary sectors. Progress in areas like climate-resilient and upgrades offers potential, but persistent constraints and small market size hinder scalable growth.

Culture and Society

Languages and Dialects

The primary language spoken on Anjouan is Ndzwani Comorian, known locally as Shindzuani or Shinzwani, a of the Bantu-language Comorian (Shikomori) closely related to . This is used by nearly all residents in daily communication, with an estimated 275,000 speakers on the island as of recent linguistic surveys. Variations within Shindzuani reflect local sub-regional differences, but it shares core grammatical structures—such as noun classes and verb conjugations typical of —with other Comorian dialects, enabling broad across the . French serves as the administrative and educational language, facilitating official documents, schooling, and interactions with international entities, a legacy of colonial rule and ongoing ties . Arabic, while official, is mainly confined to religious instruction, Quranic recitation, and scholarly contexts, aligning with the island's predominantly Sunni Muslim population. Historically, Comorian dialects like Shindzuani were transcribed in Arabic-based Ajami script, particularly for Islamic texts, but Latin script has become standard since the late 20th century for secular writing and education, though Ajami endures in informal and religious use among some groups, including women.

Traditional Clothing and Customs

Traditional attire in Anjouan reflects the island's Swahili-Islamic heritage, with women commonly wearing the chiromani, a colorful, two-tone fabric draped as a long or paired with a known as a lesso for . This garment, often featuring bold and bright patterns, is adapted for daily use and ceremonial occasions, emphasizing vibrant hues distinctive to Anjouan women. Men typically don the kofia, an embroidered cap with designs varying by island—Anjouan's version incorporates local motifs reflecting artisanal traditions. For formal events, such as weddings, Anjouanese brides may wear ornate gold or silver ensembles layered over traditional fabrics, underscoring Islamic influences on and elaboration. Customs in Anjouan are deeply rooted in of the , supplemented by beliefs in spirits like djinn, which influence rituals and social interactions. The Grand Mariage, a lavish multi-day involving feasts, , and gift exchanges, remains a cornerstone of social status and community bonding, though less emphasized than on ; it features ceremonial dishes such as beef or goat with rice and milk curds. Daily customs prioritize and respect, with greetings involving handshakes and inquiries about well-being, while festivals showcase traditional dances, twarab , and artisan displays of and perfumed essences derived from local ylang-ylang and . Anjouan-specific events often highlight island musicians and dancers, preserving oral histories through performance amid the archipelago's trade-influenced .

Cuisine and Daily Life

The cuisine of Anjouan reflects the island's position within the , blending African, , and French influences with a strong emphasis on practices due to the Sunni Muslim majority. Staple foods include , , plantains, and root vegetables, often prepared with and fresh sourced from surrounding waters. Common proteins feature for everyday meals and reserved for celebrations, alongside locally caught , , , and . Spices such as , cloves, , and chilies add aromatic depth, derived from island plantations of ylang-ylang and . Popular dishes include langouste à la vanille, featuring simmered with beans, butter, shallots, and reduction—though alcohol is minimized in local adaptations owing to Islamic dietary norms—and curry with , onions, tomatoes, and spices like and . Grilled fish and rougail sauces with dried salt or plantains accompany as daily fare, while bread variants incorporate and eggs for or snacks. Pork is absent, and meals emphasize communal sharing, with women typically handling preparation in matrilineally influenced households. Daily life on Anjouan revolves around agrarian and routines, with residents cultivating cash crops like , ylang-ylang, and cloves on terraced volcanic slopes, alongside subsistence farming of bananas and . from artisanal boats provides essential protein, while markets in bustle with trade in spices, textiles, and seafood, fostering social interactions. As over 98% of the population adheres to , routines are punctuated by five daily prayers, mosque attendance, and observance of , during which meals break the fast with dates, soups, and family gatherings. Social structure retains matrilineal African roots overlaid with patrilineal Islamic norms, evident in compounds where women manage households and men engage in public discourse at village bangwe gathering spots. Children attend madrasas for Quranic education alongside secular schooling, and evenings often involve or taarab music blending and African rhythms. Economic pressures from drive male migration to or mainland Africa for remittances, leaving women to sustain local livelihoods.

Environment and Biodiversity

Flora and Unique Ecosystems

The humid forests of Anjouan harbor a diverse , with inventories recording 280 across 84 families and 200 genera. Among these, 24 in 15 families exhibit to the archipelago, reflecting the island's position within the and Islands . diversity is notable, with 16 documented, including the epiphytic Jumellea anjouanensis, which occurs in humid forests from 450 to 1,900 meters elevation. Other endemics like Aerangis polyura further underscore the orchid richness in montane habitats. Anjouan's unique ecosystems include upper montane forests at higher elevations, characterized by low canopies under 10 meters, abundant tree ferns, lianas, orchids, and mosses, which support specialized endemics adapted to cloud-prone conditions. These forests, concentrated above 1,000 meters, maintain the island's largest remaining wooded areas despite severe pressures. Lowland humid formations around sites like Lake Dzialandzé exhibit high , with biovolumes of 373–411 m³/ha, dominated by such as Brachylaena ramiflora var. comorensis at densities up to 784 trunks per hectare. Key plant groups include Mystroxylon aethiopicum and Grisollea myriantha in mixed associations, alongside montane specialists like Philippia comoriensis and Tambourissa leptophylla, linking Anjouan's flora biogeographically to through shared genera. Cultivated ecosystems complement native , with plantations of (ylang-ylang), , cloves, and lemongrass integrated into lower slopes, though these introduced cash crops have contributed to . Overall, Anjouan's aligns with broader patterns, where approximately 1,000 native species include 30% endemics, but the island's ecosystems face acute threats from one of the world's highest rates, with 80% of native forests lost between 1995 and 2014.

Fauna and Conservation Efforts

Anjouan's fauna is characterized by high , particularly among birds and bats, adapted to the island's montane forests and coastal habitats, though populations are threatened by habitat loss. The Anjouan scops owl (Otus capnodes) is an endemic bird species confined to the island's remaining forests, classified as endangered due to ongoing decline from and predation. The Anjouan Island sparrowhawk (Accipiter francesii pusillus), a limited to Anjouan, is also endangered, with its small population vulnerable to . Other endemic avifauna includes the Anjouan sunbird (Cinnyris comorensis) and Anjouan brush-warbler (Nesillas longicaudata), both restricted to the island and reliant on native vegetation. Among mammals, the Livingstone's fruit bat (Pteropus livingstonii), critically endangered and endemic to Anjouan and , inhabits forest canopies for roosting and foraging, with populations estimated below 10,000 individuals as of recent assessments. The Anjouan myotis (Myotis anjouanensis), a vesper bat species found only in the archipelago, occurs in Anjouan's caves and forests but faces risks from habitat alteration. Reptilian diversity includes several endemic species across the Comoros, such as geckos and skinks, with at least 12 endemics archipelago-wide, though Anjouan-specific data highlight threats from and agricultural expansion. Conservation initiatives prioritize restoration and protection amid severe rates exceeding 10% annually in Anjouan's highlands. The NGO Dahari has implemented conservation agreements with local farmers, securing commitments to protect and replant forests critical for endemics like the ; by September 2024, 30 farmers signed binding pacts covering over 100 hectares. For the fruit bat, efforts have safeguarded seven priority roosts through community incentives, engaging more than 100 farmers to reduce hunting and logging pressures. Marine efforts include a community-led no-take zone established in 2021 within Anjouan's , which has shown biomass increases in target fish by 2025 monitoring, aiding broader ecosystem recovery. These programs, supported by international funders like the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, emphasize payments for ecosystem services to align local livelihoods with goals, though enforcement challenges persist due to limited resources.

Protected Areas and Recent Initiatives

Anjouan's protected areas are limited in extent and relatively recent in establishment, with the first formal designations occurring in 2018 amid ongoing pressures that have reduced forest cover by approximately 80% since 1995. Key sites include the Parc Naturel d'Anjouan, which encompasses terrestrial habitats, and the located off the in western Anjouan, featuring marine ecosystems. The supports rich coastal and , designated as a protected zone due to its ecological significance. Additional areas under management include the Mount Mlédjélé and Mont Ntringui zones, focusing on highland forests and watersheds. Recent initiatives emphasize community-driven conservation, particularly through the NGO Dahari, which has signed agreements with farmers to protect native forests, , and . In September 2024, 30 pilot conservation agreements were formalized with highland farmers, marking the initial phase toward restoring degraded landscapes, with expansion planned for 2025. Dahari aims to conserve and restore one-third of Anjouan's remaining forests by 2027 via pacts with 1,000 farmers acting as "water guardians," addressing the drying of 40 out of 50 permanent rivers. A 2024 reforestation program integrates farmer participation to halt further loss, supported by international partners like the Darwin Initiative. Marine efforts include a 10-hectare no-take zone within Shisiwani , established to bolster and , with monitoring in 2025 indicating positive recovery signs such as increased biomass. Terrestrial initiatives also target species like , with Dahari collaborating with Bat Conservation International since 2024 to expand forest protections around roosting sites. These programs prioritize empirical monitoring and farmer incentives over top-down , given historical weaknesses in legal .

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