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American kestrel eating bird.

An avivore is a specialized predator of birds, with birds making up a large proportion of its diet. Such bird-eating animals come from a range of groups.

Birds

[edit]

Birds that are specialized predators of other birds include certain falcons and accipiters. General features of avian avivores include a skull form which is well adapted for grasping and crushing with the beak, although not especially well structured for neck twisting motions.[1] Bird-eating raptors also tend to show greater sexual dimorphism than other raptors, with the females being larger than the males.[2]

Some avian avivores such as the shikra, besra, Eurasian sparrowhawk, and sharp-shinned hawk catch their prey by flying from cover in a tree or bush, taking their prey unawares. In contrast, the lanner falcon hunts in open country taking birds by horizontal pursuit. The aplomado falcon will use both ambush and more extended flights.[3] The peregrine falcon dives on flying birds from a great height at speeds that can exceed 300 km/h.

The extinct Haast's eagle of New Zealand preyed on the large flightless bird species of the region such as the moa.

Mammals

[edit]

In certain biotopes, birds constitute the bulk of the diet of various carnivorans, e.g., of adult leopard seals that mostly prey on penguins, the Arctic fox living in coastal areas where colonies of murres, auks, gulls and other seabirds abound and stoats in New Zealand against whom flightless birds like the takahē and kiwi are defenseless. Other avivore mammals who occasionally prey on birds include most carnivora; a number of primates ranging from lorises and night monkeys over baboons and chimpanzees to humans; orcas; opossums and other marsupials; rats and other rodents; hedgehogs and other insectivora and bats.

A number of mammal species are specialized predators of birds. The caracal and the serval, both medium-sized cats, are known for their leaping ability which they use to catch flying birds, sometimes two at a time. Domestic cats may at times become specialists as bird-killers if other prey is unavailable. Some carnivora, including the red fox and martens, are known for engaging in surplus killing of birds. Kruuk (1972) observed that four red foxes killed 230 black-headed gulls in one night in a single colony at the Cumberland coast while fewer than 3% of the gulls showed any sign of being eaten.[1] The greater noctule bat is believed to predate small migrating birds on the wing in the skies of Southern Europe.

Many mammals, such as squirrels, monkeys, and pine martens, also feed on bird eggs and young when they get the chance.

Amphibians

[edit]

The fanged frog Limnonectes megastomias preys on birds and insects.[4]

Arthropoda

[edit]

Various groups of arthropod have been observed to be avivorous, however birds do not make up the majority of the diets of any arthropod; a strict avivore among the arthropods has not been discovered.

The Goliath birdeater (Theraphosa blondi) is reputed to be an avivore (hence the name), but it rarely preys on birds.[5][6] However, other species of spider have been observed to consume birds that they capture; large orb-weaving spiders, such as the golden orbweavers, have been observed to consume small birds such as mannikin and other finches.[7][8] An Avicularia, another species of tarantula, has also been recorded to consume a bird.[9]

The Phillip island centipede (Cormocephalus coynei) has been dubbed as a "giant bird-eating centipede"; it may consume petrel chicks (Pterodroma nigripennis) at a rate between ~2100 and ~3730 nestlings per year, across the island's population of centipedes. It has been theorized that the centipede was able to enter this ecological niche due to the absence of endemic mammalian predators on the island.[10][11]

Praying mantises (Mantodea) are well documented in catching and consuming hummingbirds of a similar mass; the ruby-throated hummingbird is often preyed upon.[12] In addition, other types of birds also fall prey to mantises, such as warblers, sunbirds, honeyeaters, flycatchers, vireos and european robins.[13][14]

Avivorous mantid genera include:[14]

A coconut crab (Birgus latro) was filmed ambushing a sleeping red-footed booby, shattering wing bones on both wings with its claws, and consuming it along with 5 other coconut crabs, which were perhaps attracted by the commotion and scent of blood.[15][16]

References

[edit]
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Avivore

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An avivore is an animal that specializes in preying on birds, with avian species constituting a large fraction of its diet.[1] This term derives from the Latin avis (bird) and vorare (to devour), encompassing predators across diverse taxa that have evolved adaptations for hunting and consuming birds.[2] Avivores include prominent birds of prey such as falcons, hawks, owls, and shrikes, which often employ agile flight or ambush tactics to capture avian prey.[1] Mammals like certain bats, reptiles including snakes, amphibians, and even arachnids also exhibit avivorous behaviors, demonstrating the ecological breadth of this dietary specialization.[3] For instance, the great evening bat (Ia io) is known as both an insectivore and avivore, shifting its diet seasonally to include birds.[4] These predators play key roles in ecosystems by regulating bird populations, though their hunting efficiency—facilitated by features like strong talons, sharp beaks, and keen vision—can influence biodiversity dynamics. Notable examples include the Cooper's hawk, which targets small to medium-sized birds in urban and forested areas, and species like goshawks and sparrowhawks that pursue birds in flight.[1]

Definition and Etymology

Definition

An avivore is defined as a specialized carnivorous predator for which birds form the primary component of the diet, typically comprising a large proportion by frequency or biomass.[5] This dietary focus distinguishes avivores from generalist or opportunistic predators, which may consume birds only sporadically as part of a broader range of prey items.[1] Classification as an avivore requires evidence from empirical diet studies, often involving direct analysis of stomach contents to identify avian remains or fecal sampling to assess dietary composition through identifiable fragments such as bones, feathers, or DNA.[6] These methods quantify the reliance on birds, confirming specialization when avian prey exceeds incidental consumption in the predator's overall foraging patterns.[4] The term avivore emerged in ecological literature around the mid-1990s as part of efforts to categorize trophic niches and feeding guilds among predators, highlighting the evolutionary and ecological significance of bird-specialized predation.[7]

Etymology

The term "avivore" derives from Latin avis, meaning "bird," combined with vorare, meaning "to devour" or "to eat greedily."[8][9] This construction parallels other suffixes denoting dietary specialization, such as "-vore" in carnivore (from Latin carnis, "flesh") and herbivore (from Latin herba, "plant" or "herb"), which similarly originate from vorare to indicate consumption.[9] A closely related term is ornithophage, formed from Greek ornithos ("of a bird") and phagein ("to eat"), used interchangeably in biological contexts to describe organisms that primarily consume birds.[10] Unlike the Latin-based "avivore," which emphasizes avian prey specifically, "ornithophage" draws on broader classical roots for "bird-eater" but serves a comparable function in ecological nomenclature. The English term "avivore" entered biological literature in the mid-1990s, appearing in ornithological and ecological studies focused on predator diets and ecomorphology, such as Fritz Hertel's analysis of raptor feeding behaviors published in The Auk.[11] No earlier documented uses in scientific texts have been identified, suggesting it emerged as a specialized descriptor amid growing interest in trophic interactions post-1950. The spelling and usage remain consistent across languages, with "avivore" adopted directly in French to denote bird-specialized predators, as seen in descriptions of species like the peregrine falcon.[12]

Adaptations and Ecology

Physiological and Morphological Adaptations

Avivores, specialized predators that primarily consume birds, have evolved a suite of physiological and morphological traits across diverse taxa to overcome the challenges posed by avian prey's agility, flight capabilities, and protective behaviors. These adaptations enhance detection, capture, restraint, and consumption of birds, which often require precise targeting and rapid subdual.[13] Sensory enhancements, particularly acute vision, are prominent in many avivores, enabling the localization of fast-moving or camouflaged birds from considerable distances. In avian avivores such as raptors, visual acuity is exceptionally high—up to eight times that of humans—facilitated by a high density of cone cells in the retina and deep central foveae that provide telescopic-like magnification for spotting prey during flight or perching. This superior eyesight allows detection of small details, such as feather movements, from over a kilometer away in species like eagles and hawks. Some raptors also possess ultraviolet (UV) sensitivity, which aids in distinguishing bird plumage patterns that reflect UV light against foliage backgrounds, improving prey contrast in natural environments.[14][15][16] Morphological structures for grasping and restraining avian prey are critical, varying by taxon but universally emphasizing strength and precision to counter birds' evasive maneuvers. Avian avivores feature powerful talons—curved, sharp claws on zygodactyl feet—that exert immense pressure (up to 400 psi in some species) to pierce flesh and immobilize struggling prey mid-air or on the ground, with interdigital size variations correlating to restraint techniques like crushing or pinning. In mammalian avivores, dexterous forelimbs provide gripping power for pouncing on perching or fleeing birds. Reptilian avivores, including arboreal snakes, exhibit elongated bodies with keeled ventral scales for traction during climbs and constriction coils to subdue larger avian prey without reliance on limbs. Amphibian avivores, though less common, utilize robust jaws and adhesive tongues in species like large frogs to seize and hold small birds near water edges.[17][13][18][19] Specialized feeding structures further adapt avivores to process tough avian tissues, such as bones and feathers. Raptors possess hooked, cere-covered beaks with a sharp tomial edge or "tooth" for tearing flesh, dispatching prey by severing the spine, and occasionally crushing small bones, adaptations honed for efficiency in aerial or perch-based kills. In contrast, reptilian and amphibian avivores often lack dentition suited for tearing, instead employing elastic skulls and gape-limited jaws to swallow birds whole, with physiological expansions allowing ingestion of prey up to 1.5 times the predator's body width in some snakes.[20][21][18] Sexual dimorphism, particularly reversed size dimorphism in avian avivores, represents a key physiological adaptation driven by dietary specialization on birds. In bird-eating raptors, females are typically 20-30% larger than males, enabling them to tackle bigger, more energy-rich prey like adult birds while males focus on smaller, agile targets such as fledglings; this division optimizes pair foraging efficiency and reduces intraspecific competition. Such dimorphism is less pronounced or absent in avivores targeting non-avian prey, underscoring its evolutionary link to the vulnerability and escapability of birds.[22] These traits arise from intense evolutionary pressures, including the need to pursue evasive, flying prey in three-dimensional space, favoring streamlined morphologies, enhanced musculature, and rapid neural processing in pursuit-oriented avivores across taxa. For instance, in raptors, powerful pectoral muscles and aerodynamically shaped wings support high-speed dives, while in climbing reptiles, lightweight bodies and prehensile tails facilitate access to arboreal nests. Overall, these adaptations reflect convergent evolution toward overcoming avian defenses, ensuring avivores' niche specialization.[21][18]

Predation dynamics on adult birds

Healthy adult birds that are capable of sustained flight enjoy a significant defensive advantage against non-volant (ground-based) predators. Mammals such as cats, foxes, raccoons, weasels, and other terrestrial carnivores frequently prey on birds, but they predominantly target vulnerable stages: eggs, nestlings, fledglings, roosting or injured adults, or birds on the ground. Capturing a healthy, flying adult bird mid-air or in rapid escape is exceptionally rare for most mammals due to the mobility and aerial agility provided by powered flight. As a result, the vast majority of natural predation events on fully grown, competent-flying birds come from other birds—particularly specialized avian avivores such as falcons, accipiter hawks (e.g., goshawks, Cooper's hawks), and certain owls that are adapted for aerial pursuit, ambush, or nocturnal strikes. This dynamic is especially pronounced in intraguild predation among raptors, where larger species may prey on smaller ones. Rare exceptions among mammals include specialized behaviors: medium-sized felids like caracals and servals use powerful leaps to snatch low-flying birds; certain bats (e.g., greater noctule bat) capture migrating songbirds in mid-air during nocturnal flights. These cases remain uncommon compared to routine avian predation. Overall, flight shifts the predator landscape heavily toward aerial hunters for adult birds, underscoring the ecological dominance of avian avivores in regulating flying avian populations.

Hunting Strategies and Behaviors

Avivores employ diverse hunting strategies tailored to their habitats and prey mobility, including aerial pursuit, ambush from cover, and ground stalking. Aerial pursuit is prevalent among flying avivores, where predators engage in high-speed chases or dives to intercept birds in flight, leveraging speed and maneuverability to close distances quickly.[23] Ambush tactics involve waiting concealed in vegetation or structures before launching sudden attacks on unsuspecting birds, often targeting perching or foraging individuals.[24] Ground stalking occurs in terrestrial avivores, who approach prey stealthily across open terrain or under cover, minimizing detection through slow, silent movement.[25] Behavioral patterns in avivores often include defined territorial hunting ranges, where individuals or groups patrol specific areas to maximize encounter rates with birds. Seasonal shifts in prey selection are common, with many avivores focusing on nesting birds and fledglings during breeding seasons when vulnerability is heightened, transitioning to adult migrants or winter residents outside this period.[26] Social aspects vary, with some avivores exhibiting solitary stealth hunting to avoid competition, while others engage in cooperative tactics, such as coordinated flushing or relay pursuits, which increase success rates against evasive prey.[27] Post-capture behaviors facilitate consumption and include plucking feathers to access flesh, dismembering larger prey into manageable portions, or swallowing smaller birds whole. These actions reduce ingestion of indigestible material and aid digestion. Energy costs of bird hunting are substantial, particularly the metabolic demands of sustained flight in aerial pursuits or the production and delivery of venom in some reptilian avivores, often requiring prey intake to exceed 20-30% of body mass daily to offset expenditures.[28]

Examples Across Taxa

Avian Avivores

Avian avivores are predominantly raptors within the order Accipitriformes and Falconiformes, which have evolved specialized traits for capturing other birds in flight or at rest. The peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) exemplifies this group, renowned for its high-speed aerial pursuits where it achieves dives up to 320 km/h to strike medium-sized birds such as pigeons and ducks.[29][30] In contrast, the Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) specializes in ambush tactics within forested environments, targeting small woodland birds like finches, thrushes, and sparrows with short, explosive flights from concealed perches.[31][32] Other notable avian avivores include smaller accipiters such as the shikra (Accipiter badius) and besra (Accipiter virgatus), which primarily hunt passerines in wooded or semi-open habitats across Asia and Australasia. These species employ agile, low-level chases to capture small birds, supplementing their diet with occasional reptiles or insects but focusing on avian prey. The extinct Haast’s eagle (Hieraaetus moorei) of New Zealand represents a historical extreme, preying on large flightless moa birds up to 200 kg, using powerful talons to subdue prey in a predator-free ecosystem until human arrival.[33][34][35] Dietary composition among avian avivores varies but often emphasizes birds, with some accipiters deriving over 90% of their intake from avian sources, ranging from tiny songbirds to waterfowl weighing several kilograms. For instance, the peregrine falcon's prey typically includes 80-90% birds by biomass, while sparrowhawks focus on smaller species that constitute the bulk of their daily energy needs. Habitat preferences align with hunting styles: falcons like the peregrine favor open skies and cliffs for spotting and diving on prey, whereas woodland hawks such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk and shikra thrive in dense cover for surprise attacks.[36][37][29] Conservation challenges for avian avivores include habitat loss, which has historically reduced nesting sites and prey availability for species like the peregrine falcon, exacerbating declines from pesticides in the 20th century. Urbanization and deforestation continue to fragment woodlands essential for accipiters, though recovery programs have bolstered populations in many regions.[38][39]

Mammalian Avivores

Mammalian avivores encompass a diverse array of species that have evolved specialized predation strategies targeting birds, often leveraging terrestrial stealth, aquatic ambushes, or aerial pursuits despite lacking flight capabilities. Among terrestrial carnivores, African felids such as the caracal (Caracal caracal) and serval (Leptailurus serval) exemplify adept bird hunters through their remarkable leaping abilities. The caracal, a medium-sized predator inhabiting savannas and semi-deserts, frequently preys on ground-dwelling and low-flying birds by springing up to 3 meters vertically to intercept them mid-air, capitalizing on its powerful hind legs for explosive jumps.[40] Similarly, the serval employs high leaps exceeding 3 meters to capture wading and ground birds, using its elongated limbs and keen hearing to detect prey in tall grasses before pouncing.[41] These felids often ambush birds near water sources or open areas, where fleeing prey flushes into the air, allowing the cats to strike with precision. In colder regions, the Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) demonstrates opportunistic avivory by raiding seabird colonies during the breeding season. This small canid targets nesting seabirds such as auks and murres, consuming eggs, chicks, and adults, which can lead to significant impacts on colony populations during vagrant incursions.[42] Dietary studies reveal a seasonal reliance on these avian resources; in summer, when lemming populations fluctuate, foxes shift toward nesting birds and their eggs, which form a substantial portion of their intake in coastal habitats.[43] This adaptability underscores the fox's role as a key predator in Arctic ecosystems, where seabird predation influences nutrient cycling from marine to terrestrial environments.[44] Among flying mammals, the greater noctule bat (Nyctalus lasiopterus), Europe's largest bat species, stands out as an aerial avivore that supplements its insectivorous diet with small birds, particularly nocturnally migrating passerines. This vespertilionid bat pursues and captures songbirds mid-flight at altitudes up to 1.2 kilometers, using rapid dives and mid-air consumption documented through biologger recordings.[45] A unique adaptation is its low-frequency echolocation calls, which are tuned to detect the wingbeats of larger prey like birds, enabling prey identification in cluttered nocturnal airspace where insects produce different acoustic signatures.[46] Bird remains in droppings and bite-marked feathers confirm this predation, which peaks during migration seasons when billions of songbirds traverse Europe at night.[47] Aquatic mammalian avivores include pinnipeds like the leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), a top Antarctic predator that specializes in ambushing penguins in coastal waters. This species targets Adélie (Pygoscelis adeliae) and other penguins, which constitute 24-46% of its diet in summer, comprising a major caloric source through direct predation on swimming or hauled-out individuals.[48] Leopard seals employ stealthy approaches beneath ice floes or in open water, lunging to seize prey with powerful jaws, and observations indicate that bird consumption can approach high proportions during breeding seasons when penguin abundance peaks.[49] This reliance highlights the seal's generalist yet opportunistic feeding strategy in a dynamic polar environment.

Reptilian Avivores

Reptiles, particularly snakes within the order Squamata, represent a significant group of avivores due to their ectothermic physiology and climbing adaptations that enable access to avian nests and fledglings in diverse habitats. Among these, arboreal and semi-arboreal species excel as predators of birds, leveraging stealth and agility to exploit high bird diversity in forested environments.[50][51] Snakes such as the boomslang (Dispholidus typus), a highly venomous colubrid native to sub-Saharan Africa, specialize in targeting nestlings and eggs in tree canopies. This slender, leaf-green serpent uses its potent rear-fanged venom to immobilize small birds and juveniles, swallowing them whole after a precise strike; its diet also incorporates occasional adult birds alongside lizards and frogs. Similarly, the green tree python (Morelia viridis), found in the rainforests of New Guinea and Indonesia, ambushes avian prey from coiled positions on branches, constricting birds with its muscular body before consumption—though mammals form a larger portion of its wild diet, birds remain a notable component, especially for juveniles.[52][51][53] Dietary preferences among reptilian avivores often emphasize vulnerable life stages, with many species raiding eggs and chicks from accessible nests. Rat snakes (Pantherophis spp.), widespread in North America and Eurasia, frequently invade ground-level or low shrub nests to devour eggs and hatchlings, using constriction to subdue active prey; these opportunistic feeders account for a substantial portion of documented egg predation events in ornithological studies. The coachwhip snake (Masticophis flagellum), a fast-moving colubrid of the southwestern United States and Mexico, actively pursues fledglings on the ground or in low vegetation, overpowering them through rapid strikes and restraint rather than venom, while also consuming eggs when encountered.[54][55][56] Arboreal reptiles like the emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus) thrive in the humid tropical forests of the Amazon basin, where dense bird populations provide ample opportunities for ambush predation from vines and branches. This nocturnal constrictor targets small birds, along with bats and arboreal mammals, coiling around prey to suffocate it before ingestion; its emerald coloration aids camouflage amid foliage, enhancing success against avian targets in these biodiversity hotspots. Such habitats, characterized by multilayered canopies and high avian nesting density, correlate strongly with the prevalence of these specialized avivores.[57][58][59] Evolutionarily, adaptations like constriction in pythons and boas, or hemotoxic venom in species such as the boomslang, have facilitated the subduing of agile, feathered prey that might otherwise escape reptilian grasp. These mechanisms allow for efficient handling of fledglings, which are often more active and defended than eggs, underscoring the selective pressures of avian-reptilian interactions in shared ecosystems.[50][51]

Amphibian Avivores

Amphibian avivores are predominantly large frogs that opportunistically include birds in their diet, targeting vulnerable individuals such as nestlings or grounded juveniles in wetland environments. These predators are typically semi-aquatic anurans adapted to tropical habitats where avian foraging overlaps with amphibian territories. Among them, the fanged frog (Limnonectes megastomias), endemic to eastern Thailand, exemplifies this behavior with its enlarged head and odontoid fangs that facilitate capturing small birds along streams.[60] This species, described in 2008, employs a sit-and-wait strategy, ambushing prey including insects, other frogs, and avian species that venture near watercourses.[61] The American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus), an invasive species widespread in North America and beyond, demonstrates opportunistic predation on waterfowl, notably swallowing ducklings of species like the white-cheeked pintail (Anas bahamensis).[62] Adults, reaching lengths of up to 20 cm, use their expansive gape to ingest prey whole, with birds forming an occasional but notable component of their diet alongside fish, amphibians, and invertebrates. Similarly, the Goliath frog (Conraua goliath), Africa's largest frog species from Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, preys on small waterbirds in fast-flowing rivers, supplementing its primary diet of insects, crustaceans, and fish with occasional avian items.[63] These encounters highlight birds as significant, albeit infrequent, prey that contribute to the nutritional intake of these apex amphibian predators in shared aquatic ecosystems. Unique adaptations enable these frogs to capture avian prey in semi-aquatic settings, including powerful jaws for securing struggling victims and, in some cases, a sticky tongue to initially ensnare smaller birds near the water's edge. The fanged frog's prominent fangs, for instance, aid in gripping feathered prey that might otherwise escape. Such predation is most common in tropical wetlands, where dense bird populations forage or nest proximate to frog habitats, fostering these rare but documented interspecies interactions.[60][64]

Arthropod Avivores

Arthropod avivores represent a rare but ecologically notable group of invertebrates that prey on birds, overcoming substantial size disparities through specialized trapping mechanisms and potent venoms. Primarily found among arachnids and myriapods, these predators employ passive webs or active ambushes to capture avian prey, often in insular or forested habitats where bird populations are dense. Despite their limited overall impact on bird populations, such predation can influence local ecosystem dynamics, particularly on isolated islands.[65] Among spiders, orb-weaving species in the genus Nephila, such as N. pilipes and N. clavipes, construct expansive, high-tensile silk webs capable of ensnaring small birds like finches during flight. These webs, often spanning several meters, passively trap birds that collide with them, with documented cases in Asia and the Americas showing Nephila spiders consuming entrapped individuals.[66] The Goliath birdeater tarantula (Theraphosa blondi), the largest spider by mass, occasionally preys on small birds or nestlings in South American rainforests, though such events are infrequent and birds comprise only a minor portion of its diet, which mainly consists of arthropods and small vertebrates.[67] Centipedes, particularly the endemic Phillip Island centipede (Cormocephalus coynei), demonstrate aggressive predation on seabird chicks in Australian sub-Antarctic ecosystems. This species raids burrows to consume black-winged petrel (Pterodroma nigripennis) nestlings, with population-level estimates indicating 2,100 to 3,700 chicks killed annually across the island. Vertebrates, including seabirds, form about 30% of its diet, highlighting its role as a key trophic regulator in nutrient cycling on seabird-dependent islands.[68][65] Other arthropods include the praying mantis (Mantis religiosa and related species), which ambushes hummingbirds at feeders or flowers using raptorial forelegs to capture them mid-flight, an event documented in North American gardens but occurring rarely relative to its primary insectivorous diet.[69] Similarly, the coconut crab (Birgus latro), a large terrestrial crustacean in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, climbs low branches to seize sleeping red-footed booby (Sula sula) chicks or adults, dragging them to the ground for consumption; this opportunistic behavior influences nesting distributions on crab-abundant atolls.[70] Predation mechanics in these arthropods rely on silk-based traps for passive capture in spiders or swift, venomous strikes in centipedes and mantises to subdue larger prey, with venom briefly referenced as a paralytic agent enhancing subdual efficiency.[65] Overall, avian prey constitutes less than 10% of most arthropod avivores' diets, except in specialized island cases like the Phillip Island centipede, where it assumes greater ecological significance by recycling seabird-derived nutrients into terrestrial food webs.[67][68]

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