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Moscow State University (MSU), officially M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University,[a] is a public research university in Moscow, Russia.[3] The university includes 15 research institutes, 43 faculties, more than 300 departments, and six branches. Alumni of the university include past leaders of the Soviet Union and other governments. As of 2019, 13 Nobel laureates, six Fields Medal winners, and one Turing Award winner were affiliated with the university.

Key Information

History

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Decree on the foundation of the Moscow State University

Imperial Moscow University

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Main article: Imperial Moscow University
The Principal Medicine Store building on Red Square that housed Moscow University from 1755 to 1787

Ivan Shuvalov and Mikhail Lomonosov promoted the idea of a university in Moscow, and Russian Empress Elizabeth decreed its establishment on 23 January [O.S. 12 January] 1755.[4]

The first lectures were given on 7 May [O.S. 26 April]. Saint Petersburg State University and MSU each claim to be Russia's oldest university. Though Moscow State University was founded in 1755, St. Petersburg which has had a continuous existence as a "university" since 1819 sees itself as the successor of an academy established on in 1724, by a decree of Peter the Great.[citation needed] [5]

MSU originally occupied the Principal Medicine Store on Red Square from 1755 to 1787. Catherine the Great transferred the university to a building on the other side of Mokhovaya Street, constructed between 1782 and 1793, to a design by Matvei Kazakov, and rebuilt by Domenico Giliardi after fire consumed much of Moscow in 1812.[citation needed][6]

Main buildings of the university in Mokhovaya Street, 1798

In the 18th century, the university had three departments: philosophy, medicine, and law. A preparatory college was affiliated with the university until its abolition in 1812. In 1779, Mikhail Kheraskov founded a boarding school for noblemen (Благородный пансион) which in 1830 became a gymnasium for Russian nobility. The university press, run by Nikolay Novikov in the 1780s, published the newspaper in Imperial Russia: Moskovskie Vedomosti.[citation needed]

In 1804, medical education split into clinical (therapy), surgical, and obstetrics faculties. Between 1884 and 1897, the Department of Medicine built a medical campus in Devichye Pole, between the Garden Ring and Novodevichy Convent; designed by Konstantin Bykovsky [ru], with university doctors like Nikolay Sklifosovskiy and Fyodor Erismann acting as consultants. The campus, and medical education in general, were separated from Moscow University in 1930. Devichye Pole was operated by the independent I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University and by various other state and private institutions.[citation needed]

The roots of student unrest in the university reach deep into the nineteenth century. In 1905, a social-democratic organization emerged at the university and called for the overthrow of the Czarist government and the establishment of a republic in Russia. The imperial government repeatedly threatened to close the university. In 1911, in a protest over the introduction of troops onto the campus and mistreatment of certain professors, 130 scientists and professors resigned en masse, including Nikolay Dimitrievich Zelinskiy, Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev, and Sergei Alekseevich Chaplygin; thousands of students were expelled.[citation needed]

Moscow State University

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1917–49

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After the October Revolution of 1917, the institution began to admit children of the proletariat and peasantry. In 1919, the university abolished tuition fees, and established a preparatory facility to help working-class children prepare for entrance examinations. During the implementation of Joseph Stalin's first five-year plan (1928–32), the university was expanded.[citation needed]

1950–99

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A 1962 Soviet stamp features Moscow State University.

In 1970, the university imposed a 2% quota on Jewish students.[7] A 2014 article entitled "Math as a tool of anti-semitism" in The Mathematics Enthusiast discussed antisemitism in the Moscow State University's Department of Mathematics during the 1970s and 1980s.[8][9][10]

In the mid-1980s, the Dean of MSU's law faculty was dismissed for taking bribes.[11] After 1991, nine new faculties were established. The following year, the university gained a unique status: it is funded directly from the state budget (bypassing the Ministry of Education).[citation needed]

On 6 September 1997, French electronic musician Jean Michel Jarre used the front of the university as the backdrop for a concert. The concert attracted a paying crowd of half a million people.[12]

2000–2020

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Students celebrating the 250th anniversary of the university in 2005

In 2007, MSU Rector Viktor Sadovnichy said that corruption in Russia's education system was a "systemic illness," and that he had seen an ad guaranteeing a perfect score on entrance exams to MSU, for a significant fee.[13]

On 19 March 2008, Russia's most powerful supercomputer to date, the SKIF MSU (Russian: СКИФ МГУ; skif means 'Scythian' in Russian) was launched at the university. Its peak performance of 60 TFLOPS (LINPACK – 47.170 TFLOPS) made it the fastest supercomputer in the Commonwealth of Independent States.[14][15]

In November 2012, Mikhail Basharatyan, Deputy Dean of the MSU World Economy Department, was fired for taking a bribe from a pupil.[16][17] In February 2013, Andrei Andriyanov resigned as head of the Kolmogorov Special Educational and Scientific Center of the university, after an investigation concluded that he had included fake references in his doctoral thesis.[18]

2020–present

[edit]

In March 2022, Victor Sadovnichy, rector of Moscow State University and president of the Russian Union of Rectors, was the lead signature in a public statement endorsing the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[19][20] In reaction, Academia Europaea, a pan-European academy, suspended the membership of Sadovnichy.[21] In response to the Russian invasion, that same month Yale University, the Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, University of Potsdam, and HKU Business School suspended their longstanding relationships with the university, and the University of St Andrews suspended a joint master's degree programme with the university.[22][23][24][25][26] Intel and AMD, the largest chip manufacturers in the world, whose processors are used in the Moscow State University supercomputer, as well as Nvidia, reacted by suspending deliveries of their processors to Russia.[27][28]

Campus

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Main article: Main building of Moscow State University
Building of the Faculties of Biology and of Soil Science

Since 1953, most of the faculties have been situated on Sparrow Hills, in southwest Moscow. In the post-war era, Joseph Stalin ordered seven tiered neoclassic towers to be built around the city. It was built using Gulag labour, as were many of Stalin's Great Construction Projects in Russia.[29][30][31] The MSU main building was the tallest building in Europe until 1990. The central tower is 240 m tall, 36 stories high.[32]

The university library

Along with the university administration, the Museum of Earth Sciences and faculties of Mechanics and Mathematics, Geology, Geography, and Fine and Performing Arts are in the main building. The building on Mokhovaya Street houses the Faculty of Journalism, the Faculty of Psychology, and Institute of Asian and African Countries. A number of faculty buildings are located near Manege Square in the centre of Moscow and a number of campuses abroad in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.[citation needed] The Ulyanovsk branch of MSU was reorganized into Ulyanovsk State University in 1996.[33]

Faculties

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Rector Viktor Sadovnichiy
The first Humanities Building
As of 2015, the Old Building housed the Department of Oriental studies.

As of 2009, the university had 39 faculties and 15 research centres. A number of small faculties opened, such as Faculty of Physics and Chemistry and Higher School of Television. The full list of faculties is as follows:[34]

Institutions and research centers

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Academic reputation

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University rankings
Global – Overall
ARWU World[40]101–150 (2024)
QS World[41]=105 (2026)
THE World[42]=107 (2025)
The main building in winter

In world rankings, MSU was ranked 101st–150th by the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2024,[43] and 105th by QS World University Rankings 2026.[44]

The university has contacts with universities throughout the world, exchanging students and lecturers. It houses the UNESCO International Demography Courses and Hydrology Courses. In 1991 the French University College, the Russian-American University, and the Institute of German Science and Culture were opened.[citation needed]

The institution's academic reputation was severely undermined because of its support for the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[19][20] (See: sanctions).

Staff and students

[edit]

The university employs more than 4,000 academics and 15,000 support staff.[citation needed] Approximately 5,000 researchers work at the university's research institutes and facilities.[45] More than 40,000 undergraduates and 7,000 advanced degree candidates are enrolled.[45] Annually, the university hosts approximately 2,000 students, graduate students, and researchers from around the world.[citation needed]

Notable people

[edit]
Main article: List of Moscow State University people
Notable alumni of Moscow State University

As of 2017, 13 Nobel laureates, 6 Fields Medal winners and one Turing Award winner had been affiliated with the university. It is the alma mater of writers Anton Chekhov, Boris Pasternak, and Ivan Turgenev; politicians Mikhail Gorbachev, Mikhail Suslov, and Ruslan Khasbulatov; and mathematicians and physicists Vladimir Arnold, Boris Demidovich, Vladimir Drinfeld, Vitaly Ginzburg, Andrey Kolmogorov, Grigory Margulis, Andrei Sakharov, and Yakov Sinai.

Religious organizations at Moscow State University

[edit]
Information Center of the House Church of the Martyr Tatiana at Moscow State University (Main Building, 2016)

Russian legislation prohibits[46][47] The activities of religious organizations are directly at universities, but they operate at Moscow State University. Religious literature and objects of worship are also traded on the territory of Moscow State University.

The Russian Orthodox Church

[edit]
Orthodox churches at Moscow State University

There are two Orthodox churches at Moscow State University: the house church of the Martyr Tatiana at Moscow State University and the church of the Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius at Moscow State University.[48][49]

In 2011, Patriarch Kirill appealed to the rector of Moscow State University with a request to support the initiative to erect an Orthodox "chapel temple on the territory of the university complex on Vorobyovy Gory," which, in his opinion, would contribute to "solving many important issues related to the patriotic and spiritual and moral education of Russian youth."[50]. The proposal caused a mixed reaction on social networks and the media.[51]

Interaction of Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and All Russia with Moscow State University

On November 18, 2011, the Academic Council of Moscow University decided to award Patriarch Kirill of Moscow and All Russia the title of Honorary Doctor of Moscow State University "for his outstanding contribution to the spiritual education of young people and close cooperation." On September 28, 2012, during the Patriarch's visit to Moscow State University, Viktor Sadovnichy presented him with the diploma of honorary Doctor of Moscow State University.[52].According to some media reports, before the patriarch's arrival at Moscow State University, students complained that they were being forcibly escorted to a meeting, but the student council and the press service of Moscow State University denied this.[53][54] At a meeting with representatives of the student council, Rector Viktor Sadovnichy admitted that the facts of coercion were.[55]

Criticism

[edit]

O. A. Zinovieva, a cultural critic at the Moscow State University Faculty of Arts, published a book in 2009 claiming to involve GULAG prisoners in the construction of the first stage.[56] The theory has no scientific confirmation, as it is presented without any evidence and is criticized by experts working with archival historical documents.[57][58] There is no mention of this in the fundamental work of the German sociologist Dietmar Neutatz "The Moscow Metro from the first projects to the great construction of Stalinism," in which he examines the social composition of the builders of the subway.[59]

Criminal case for bribery

[edit]

In October 2012, a criminal case was opened against Mikhail Basharatyan, Deputy Dean of the Faculty of World Politics at Moscow State University, and Viktor Baris, Head of the Department of Philosophy and Political Science at the Academy of Labor and Social Relations, under the article "receiving a large-scale bribe by a group of individuals by prior agreement".[60][61].

The criminal case was opened in accordance with paragraphs "a" and "b" of part 5 of Article 290 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation.[62].In mid-October 2012, a young man applying to graduate school contacted the police. In his statement, he indicated that he was offered to pay 30,000 euros for successful admission and subsequent defense of his thesis at the university.[63][64]

The young man wanted to enter the postgraduate program of the Academy of Labor and Social Relations. For 30 thousand euros, Basharatyan and Baris promised to ensure admission and postgraduate studies, and also assured that he would have no problems with his PhD thesis and with its defense at Lomonosov Moscow State University.[65][66][67] On October 30, as part of the previously reached agreements, the suspects received 1 million rubles as a bribe. At the time of receiving the money, the criminals were caught red-handed.[68]

After his detention, Basharatyan was arrested, and the case was brought to court in 2014. At the same time, Basharatyan was not a member of any university dissertation council, so he could not influence the result of the defense of postgraduate works.[68][69][70]

Fake dissertations

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According to the Dissernet online expert community for 2014, MSU is one of the largest dissertative corporations in Russia that produce fake dissertations.[71] Community experts note that the main sources of such dissertations at Moscow State University are the Faculty of Public Administration under the leadership of V. A. Nikonov and the Faculty of Sociology under the leadership of V. I. Dobrenkov.[72]

According to Dissernet data on 12/19/2020, Moscow State University ranks 4th among Russian universities in terms of the number of employees convicted of dishonesty (232), significantly behind the leader in this nomination, Plekhanov Russian University of Economics (382 cases).[73]

Threats of expulsion and insults

[edit]

In early March 2021, the media reported on insults and threats of expulsion of students related to the MSU Initiative Group. Lyudmila Grigorieva, Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Fundamental Physico-Chemical Engineering at Moscow State University, demanded that students join the harassment of one of the MSU eco-activists, demanding that students write negative comments on the activist's wall on social networks.[74] In the process of communicating with students, Grigorieva called the MSU Initiative Group a "gang" and "Western liberals who are being fed by the West."[75]. "They are against the country, against the university. <...> They are given some crumbs and some leftovers there [in the West]. And so they grunt here for these scraps, crawl and shit all the time," Grigorieva said about the activists' activities.[76][77].

Moscow State University in philately

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Main article: ru:Московский государственный университет § МГУ в филателии
  • Russian and Soviet stamps
  • 1950 postage stamp: the project of the 26-storey building of Moscow State University
    1950 postage stamp:
    the project of the 26-storey building of Moscow State University
  • 1955 postage stamp: the old university building
    1955 postage stamp:
    the old university building
  • 1955 postage stamp: the new university building
    1955 postage stamp:
    the new university building
  • 1957 postage stamp: Moscow Festival of Youth and Students
    1957 postage stamp:
    Moscow Festival of Youth and Students
  • 1958 postage stamp: V Congress of the International Union of Architects
    1958 postage stamp:
    V Congress of the International Union of Architects
  • 1958 postage stamp: X Congress of the International Astronomical Union in the new university building
    1958 postage stamp:
    X Congress of the International Astronomical Union in the new university building
  • 2002 postage stamp: 200th anniversary of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
    2002 postage stamp:
    200th anniversary of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
  • 2005 postage stamp: 250th anniversary of Moscow State University
    2005 postage stamp:
    250th anniversary of Moscow State University

See also

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Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Moscow State University

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Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) is Russia's oldest and largest classical public research university, established on 25 January 1755 by decree of Empress Elizabeth on the initiative of scholar Mikhail Lomonosov to advance education modeled on European institutions.[1][2] Initially comprising three faculties—philosophy, law, and medicine—it has expanded to 41 faculties, 40 research institutes, and numerous specialized schools, educating around 40,000 students in fields from fundamental sciences to artificial intelligence.[1][3] Renamed in honor of its founder in 1940, MSU has been a cornerstone of Russian scientific progress, contributing over 3,000 developments during World War II and affiliating with 11 of Russia's 18 Nobel laureates, primarily in physics and chemistry.[1][1] Its alumni include prominent figures such as physicist Andrei Sakharov, writer Boris Pasternak, and former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, reflecting both state-aligned achievements and instances of intellectual independence amid historical political pressures.[4] Under long-serving rector Viktor Sadovnichiy since 1992, the university maintains its status as a leading international research center despite geopolitical challenges.[1]

History

Founding and Imperial Period (1755–1917)

Moscow University was established by a decree signed by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna on 12 January 1755 (23 January New Style), on the initiative of scholar Mikhail Lomonosov, who advocated for a Russian center of learning, and statesman Ivan Shuvalov, who presented the proposal to the empress and served as the first curator.[5][6][7] The institution opened on 26 April 1755 (7 May New Style) as Russia's inaugural university, comprising three faculties—philosophy (encompassing sciences and humanities), jurisprudence, and medicine—with ten professorial chairs in total and lectures conducted in both Latin and Russian.[6][7] Unlike many European universities, it omitted a theological faculty, deferring such education to ecclesiastical authorities.[6] The university incorporated two gymnasiums for preparatory studies, one for nobles and another for raznochintsy (free commoners excluding serfs), admitting students from diverse social strata while providing stipends to the indigent.[6][7] Initial enrollment reached 36 students dispatched by the Holy Synod in May 1755, expanding to approximately 100 by 1758, funded by an annual state allocation of 15,000 rubles covering professorial salaries and scholarships.[7] Facing chronic underfunding, the administration pursued self-sufficiency through a printing press founded in 1756—which issued the periodical Moskovskiye Vedomosti starting 26 April that year—and a public library, alongside patronage from industrialists like the Demidovs.[5][7] In the late 18th century, under Catherine II, the university advanced Russia's intellectual landscape by publishing scholarly journals and fostering scientific inquiry, though enrollment stagnated at around 82 students in 1787 due to noble preferences for military service and limited appeal to elites.[5][8] By century's end, raznochintsy constituted over half of students and most faculty, signaling a shift toward merit-based access amid persistent financial strains addressed via commercial printing and donations.[5] The 19th century brought reforms, including the 1804 university charter under Alexander I, which restructured the medical faculty into clinical and surgical divisions and bolstered administrative autonomy under a professorial council.[9] During Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Moscow, the university preserved irreplaceable library holdings by evacuating them, sustaining operations amid wartime disruption. Subsequent decades saw expansion into new disciplines, establishment of learned societies, and rising enrollment—reaching several thousand by the early 20th century—while navigating tsarist oversight and periodic student protests against restrictions on academic freedom.[10]

Soviet Reorganization and Early Challenges (1917–1949)

Following the October Revolution of 1917, Moscow University underwent initial reforms to align with Bolshevik educational policies, including the elimination of tuition fees and the introduction of state grants to broaden access for lower social strata.[11] These changes aimed to democratize higher education, though the institution faced immediate disruptions from political upheaval and the ensuing Russian Civil War (1917–1922), during which teaching continued amid faculty and student divisions, with some professors and students emigrating due to opposition to the new regime.[1] By 1919, the university transitioned fully to state financing under the People's Commissariat of Education, and preparatory workers' faculties (rabfaks) were established to prepare proletarian and peasant youth for admission, enrolling thousands and operating until 1936 as a mechanism for class-based affirmative action.[11] The New Economic Policy (NEP) era (1921–1928) brought relative stability, allowing continuity in scientific work under figures like geographer Dmitry Anuchin and aerodynamicist Nikolay Zhukovsky, but underlying tensions persisted as Soviet authorities sought to ideologize curricula.[1] Reorganization intensified in the 1930s under Stalin's consolidation of control: the medical faculty was separated into an independent institute in 1930, followed by the faculties of Soviet law and chemistry; humanities departments were temporarily consolidated into the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature, and History in 1931 before reintegration in 1941.[11] Experimental "team-laboratory" teaching methods, emphasizing collective over individual work, were imposed in the early 1930s but abandoned by 1932 due to impracticality. The first candidate's dissertations under the new Soviet system were defended in 1934, marking formalization of postgraduate training.[11] Stalinist purges (1936–1938) severely impacted the university, with ideological pressures leading to closures in fields like social sciences, philology, cybernetics, and genetics (amid the rise of Lysenkoism), and numerous professors arrested or exiled in campaigns such as the 1930 "Academic Affair," which targeted historians like Sergei Bakhrushin, who was exiled for alleged counter-revolutionary activities.[11] These repressions, part of broader efforts to eliminate perceived bourgeois influences, resulted in a loss of intellectual capital and constrained research freedom, though exact numbers of affected MSU faculty remain underdocumented in official records.[11] The German invasion in June 1941 triggered further challenges during the Great Patriotic War: over 5,000 students and staff enlisted, with approximately 3,000 perishing at the front, and the university was evacuated from Moscow in October 1941 to Ashkhabad, then to Sverdlovsk in summer 1942, resuming partial operations there before returning in spring 1943.[11][1] Despite disruptions, MSU graduated over 3,000 specialists and contributed more than 3,000 research projects, including advancements in aircraft design, explosives, and uranium studies, supporting the war economy while enduring resource shortages and aerial threats.[11] By 1949, post-war recovery focused on infrastructure planning, though ideological controls persisted, setting the stage for later expansions.[11]

Post-War Expansion and Peak Soviet Influence (1950–1991)

The post-war period marked a significant phase of physical and academic expansion for Moscow State University (MSU), epitomized by the construction of its iconic main building on Sparrow Hills. Initiated in 1949 under Joseph Stalin's directive as part of the "Seven Sisters" skyscrapers symbolizing Soviet architectural prowess, the project was designed by architect Lev Rudnev and completed in 1953, standing at 182 meters tall with a spire reaching 240 meters, making it Europe's tallest educational structure at the time.[12] This relocation from central Moscow to the new campus consolidated dispersed facilities, enabling larger-scale operations amid the Soviet emphasis on scientific and technical education to support industrialization and Cold War competition.[13] Enrollment surged during this era, reflecting the USSR's push for mass higher education in STEM fields. By the mid-1950s, student numbers reached approximately 17,000, up from pre-war levels, with further growth to over 30,000 by the late Soviet period, driven by state quotas prioritizing mathematics, physics, and engineering.[14] The university expanded its departmental structure, adding specialized programs in nuclear physics, computational mathematics, and mechanics, while the Faculty of Physics, established earlier in 1933, became a hub for advanced research, including contributions to early cyclotrons and nuclear reactors.[15] This growth aligned with Soviet priorities, though ideological constraints, such as initial adherence to dialectical materialism, occasionally hampered fields like biology until post-Stalin reforms.[16] MSU achieved peak influence as a cornerstone of Soviet scientific output, producing breakthroughs in theoretical physics and mathematics that bolstered the USSR's technological edge. Faculty and alumni, including Igor Tamm (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1958, for Cherenkov radiation explanation) and Lev Landau (Nobel Prize, 1962, for superfluidity theories), advanced quantum mechanics and condensed matter physics, underpinning developments like the hydrogen bomb and superconductivity research.[17] Andrey Kolmogorov's probabilistic foundations revolutionized mathematics, influencing computing and statistics globally.[18] Over 600 staff received around 1,700 state prizes across disciplines, though achievements were often credited to collective Soviet effort rather than individual merit, reflecting centralized control under the Communist Party.[15] By the 1980s, MSU's research institutes contributed to space exploration and materials science, yet growing bureaucratic stagnation and limited international collaboration foreshadowed challenges as the Soviet system waned toward 1991.[13]

Post-Soviet Transition and Reforms (1991–2000)

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 plunged Moscow State University (MSU) into economic turmoil, as Russia's hyperinflation and fiscal crisis slashed state funding for higher education, leading to delayed salaries, deteriorating infrastructure, and a significant brain drain of faculty and researchers seeking opportunities abroad.[19][20] MSU Rector Viktor Sadovnichiy later estimated that the university lost approximately one-third of its intellectual potential during the 1990s due to emigration amid these hardships.[20] Despite these challenges, the institution retained its prestige as Russia's leading university, adapting by increasing commercial activities to supplement dwindling budgets.[21] On January 24, 1992, Russian Government Decree No. 48 granted MSU the status of a self-governing federal higher educational institution, providing autonomy in educational programs, scientific research, and financial management while ensuring direct funding from the federal budget independent of the Ministry of Education.[2] Later that year, Viktor Sadovnichiy, a mathematician and former vice-rector, was elected rector in MSU's first democratic vote by the academic council, a position he retained after reelection in 1996.[22] Under his leadership, MSU implemented key reforms to stabilize operations, including the creation of the Innovation-Technological Center "MSU Science Park" in 1992 to foster applied research and industry ties, and the recreation of the Faculty of Fundamental Medicine to address gaps in medical education.[22] Further initiatives in the mid-1990s emphasized institutional heritage and interdisciplinary research, such as establishing the Academic-Research Museum of MSU History in 1993, founding the Institute of Complex Systems Mathematical Research in 1995, and reopening the St. Tatiana Chapel while reviving traditional celebrations like Tatyana's Day.[22] These steps helped preserve academic traditions amid ideological shifts away from Soviet-era controls, though persistent underfunding and corruption allegations highlighted ongoing vulnerabilities.[23] By 2000, MSU had navigated the transition toward greater self-reliance, laying groundwork for future expansion despite the decade's adversities.[22]

Contemporary Developments (2000–present)

Viktor Sadovnichiy, a mathematician and academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, has served as rector of Lomonosov Moscow State University since 1992, providing long-term leadership amid post-Soviet transitions.[24] Under his tenure, the university maintained its focus on fundamental research in mathematics, physics, and related fields, with Sadovnichiy contributing to mathematical modeling and data processing methods.[24] His administration emphasized state-aligned priorities, including meetings with Russian President Vladimir Putin to discuss educational and scientific advancements, such as in 2019 and 2024.[25][26] Following Russia's accession to the Bologna Process in 2003, Moscow State University implemented elements of the European higher education standards, including modular curricula and credit systems, though adoption was selective and met with limited enthusiasm due to preferences for traditional Russian models.[27] In 2022, Russia withdrew from the process, prompting universities like MSU to revert to national accreditation systems and prioritize domestic standards over European comparability.[28] This shift coincided with increased state funding and autonomy for leading institutions, with MSU receiving direct budget allocations bypassing the Ministry of Education, enabling expansions in student enrollment—from approximately 31,000 in 2000 to over 40,000 by the 2020s—and infrastructure projects like the Vorobyovy Gory Scientific and Technological Valley initiative.[29][30] In global rankings, MSU has consistently held the top position in Russia, ranking 1st nationally and between 105th and 245th worldwide in 2025 assessments across metrics like research output and employability.[31][32] Post-2022 geopolitical tensions led to vetting of international collaborations by security services and a pivot toward partnerships with non-Western institutions, such as Beijing Institute of Technology and Vietnamese National University, while Western ties diminished under sanctions.[33][34][35] Amid the 2022 military operation in Ukraine, an open letter signed by over 4,000 MSU affiliates condemned the conflict, reflecting internal dissent, though administrative continuity with state policies persisted.[36]

Campus and Facilities

Main Campus on Sparrow Hills

The main campus of Lomonosov Moscow State University occupies Sparrow Hills (Vorobyovy Gory) in southwestern Moscow, overlooking the Moskva River and providing panoramic city views. Relocated here in the post-World War II period, the site centralized most faculties starting September 1, 1953, following construction of a vast complex initiated in the late 1940s. This move supported the Soviet emphasis on monumental education infrastructure, transforming the hilly terrain into a hub for academic and research activities.[1] The campus's dominant feature is the main building, a 240-meter-tall, 36-story skyscraper completed in 1953, designed by Lev Rudnev as the tallest of Moscow's "Seven Sisters" Stalinist high-rises built from 1947 to 1957. Constructed under Joseph Stalin's orders from 1949 to 1953, it involved labor including Gulag prisoners and houses administrative functions, lecture halls, laboratories, and residences for several faculties. The structure, once Europe's tallest building until 1990, exemplifies Soviet neoclassical architecture with tiered setbacks and a spire. The overall campus spans 167 hectares, with over 600 buildings providing more than 1 million square meters of floor space.[37][38][39][40] Facilities form a self-contained enclave likened to a "city within a city," including eight dormitories for thousands of students, extensive libraries, sports venues such as gyms, swimming pools, stadiums, and tennis courts, plus amenities like canteens, clinics, pharmacies, shops, and recreational parks. Laboratories and research centers support diverse disciplines, while the site's elevation aids observatories and environmental studies, though early planning considered landslide risks. This infrastructure accommodates over 40,000 students and faculty, fostering integrated living and learning.[1][40]

Research and Auxiliary Facilities

The Research Computing Center (RCC) at Lomonosov Moscow State University comprises 20 research laboratories and two research and production units, employing 60 researchers including one academician and two corresponding members of the Russian Academy of Sciences.[41] Its activities encompass fundamental research in parallel information technologies, supercomputer code design, climate modeling, computational linguistics, electrodynamics, acoustics, and elementary particle physics, alongside applied projects commissioned by state and private entities.[41] The center maintains university supercomputers, develops administrative systems, and supports educational processes, with funding from sources such as the Russian Science Foundation and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education.[41] MSU operates 11 research institutes integral to its scientific output, covering domains from nuclear physics to mechanics and astronomy.[42] The Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics serves as a primary training base for particle physics specialists, conducting experiments on accelerators and cosmic rays.[43] The Sternberg Astronomical Institute includes an observatory established in 1831, facilitating observations and research in astrophysics.[44] Auxiliary facilities support research and education through specialized resources. The Fundamental Library of MSU, one of Russia's largest university collections, houses extensive holdings accessible via multiple branches and reading rooms.[45] The university maintains museums such as the Earth Science Museum, which aids geological training and exhibits, and the Zoological Museum, preserving specimens for biological studies.[46] [47] The Botanical Garden provides ecological research venues, while sports complexes and a Medical Research and Education Center enhance auxiliary capabilities for student and faculty well-being.[45]

Recent Infrastructure Upgrades

In 2023, Moscow State University initiated comprehensive capital repairs on its main building at Sparrow Hills, beginning with the seventh, twelfth, and twenty-second floors, which accommodate administrative functions and research laboratories.[48] These efforts encompassed modernization of engineering systems, structural reinforcement, and preservation of architectural elements to extend the facility's operational lifespan.[49] By August 2025, repairs had advanced to additional floors, including the tenth and eleventh, with plans to complete work on the eighth, thirteenth, and twenty-first floors by year's end, alongside upgrades to central Moscow infrastructure supporting the university.[50] A key component of these renovations involved the spire of the main building, where full dismantling and inspection were completed prior to capital repair and restoration starting on July 23, 2025.[51] This phase addresses weathering and structural integrity issues accumulated over decades, utilizing specialized techniques to restore the 57-meter spire while maintaining its Stalinist-era design fidelity.[52] Facade restorations extended to university buildings on Mokhovaya and Bolshaya Nikitskaya streets, launched in July 2025 under coordinated oversight, focusing on exterior preservation and waterproofing to mitigate urban environmental degradation.[53] These projects form part of a larger initiative to overhaul historical assets, including the Lomonosov House and related structures, emphasizing durability against Moscow's climate without altering original aesthetics.[54] Looking ahead, construction plans announced in October 2025 outline a new integrated academic building and dormitory for international students, enhancing capacity for humanities and global programs amid ongoing federal priorities for higher education infrastructure.[55] These developments align with Russia's national campus modernization efforts, though implementation details remain subject to budgetary and regulatory approvals.[56]

Governance and Organization

Administrative Leadership

The administrative leadership of Lomonosov Moscow State University centers on the Rector, who functions as the chief executive, overseeing academic operations, research initiatives, financial management, and external relations. The Rector is elected by the university's Academic Council for a five-year term, with the possibility of re-election, and must be approved by the Russian Ministry of Science and Higher Education.[25] This structure reflects the institution's semi-autonomous status within Russia's state-controlled higher education system, balancing internal academic governance with national oversight.[57] Viktor Antonovich Sadovnichy has served as Rector since February 4, 1992, marking the longest tenure in the university's history.[58] A specialist in differential equations and probability theory, Sadovnichy earned his doctorate in physical and mathematical sciences and became a full member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1991. Born on April 3, 1939, in Krasnopavlivka, Ukrainian SSR, he previously held positions as dean of the Mechanics and Mathematics Faculty and vice-rector for academic affairs at MSU. In December 2024, at age 85, he was re-elected for a seventh term, underscoring continuity in leadership amid Russia's evolving educational policies.[58][59][25] Supporting the Rector are vice-rectors responsible for specialized domains, including science, international cooperation, administrative operations, and security. The university's governance also involves the Academic Council, which advises on strategic decisions, and a Board of Trustees that includes high-level state figures, such as President Vladimir Putin, who has chaired meetings to address development priorities.[60] Sadovnichy's extended leadership has coincided with MSU's expansion in research output and infrastructure, though critics note alignments with state directives on issues like geopolitical stances.[61]

Faculties and Departments

Moscow State University comprises 43 faculties, spanning natural sciences, humanities, social sciences, engineering, medicine, and professional disciplines, with each faculty subdivided into specialized departments that handle undergraduate, graduate, and research activities.[62] The total number of departments exceeds 350, functioning as the core academic units responsible for delivering curricula, conducting specialized research, and supervising student theses in narrow subfields.[63] This decentralized structure allows for focused expertise, though coordination occurs through faculty deans and university-wide councils. Faculties in the natural and exact sciences include the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics (established 1933, emphasizing pure and applied mathematics), Faculty of Computational Mathematics and Cybernetics (founded 1970, focused on informatics and modeling), Faculty of Physics (covering theoretical and experimental physics), Faculty of Chemistry (with departments in organic, inorganic, and physical chemistry), Faculty of Biology (encompassing genetics, ecology, and microbiology), Faculty of Geology (specializing in mineralogy and geophysics), Faculty of Geography (addressing physical and human geography), and Faculty of Soil Science (dedicated to pedology and land management).[64] These faculties maintain over 100 departments collectively, integrating laboratory-based research with theoretical instruction. Humanities and social sciences faculties feature the Faculty of Philology (studying linguistics and literature across languages), Faculty of History (divided into departments by era and region), Faculty of Philosophy (including logic, ethics, and epistemology), Faculty of Journalism (training in media production and theory), Faculty of Foreign Languages and Area Studies (offering programs in multiple languages and regional expertise), and Faculty of Law (with departments in civil, criminal, and international law).[65] Professional and applied faculties encompass the Faculty of Economics (analyzing macroeconomics, finance, and policy), Faculty of Political Science (covering political theory and systems), Graduate School of Public Administration (focusing on governance and policy analysis), Business School (providing management and entrepreneurship training), and Faculty of Fundamental Medicine (integrating biology with clinical sciences).[66] Emerging and interdisciplinary faculties, such as the Faculty of Biotechnology (established post-2000 for genetic engineering and bioinformatics) and School of State Audit (specializing in financial oversight), reflect adaptations to modern demands, each with 5–15 departments tailored to specific applications.[67] Departments within faculties typically consist of 10–50 faculty members, emphasizing original research alongside teaching, with student-to-faculty ratios varying by field but averaging around 10:1 in core sciences.[62]

Research Institutes and Affiliated Centers

Lomonosov Moscow State University operates 15 research institutes dedicated to fundamental and applied investigations across disciplines including physics, mechanics, astronomy, and computational sciences. These entities, distinct from the university's teaching faculties, emphasize experimental and theoretical work, often leveraging specialized infrastructure and international collaborations to advance knowledge in priority areas.[68] The institutes contribute significantly to MSU's research output, with facilities encompassing accelerators, observatories, and supercomputing resources that support over 600 research groups university-wide.[69] The D.V. Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP MSU), founded on 1 February 1946, concentrates on nuclear physics, elementary particle physics, cosmic ray astrophysics, and related fields such as information technology in telecommunications. It pioneered cosmic ray studies through satellite experiments starting in the mid-20th century and maintains active involvement in global accelerators, including CERN's Large Hadron Collider experiments. The institute houses multiple particle accelerators for experimental nuclear research and theoretical modeling.[70][71][72] The Sternberg Astronomical Institute (SAI MSU) advances research in stellar astrophysics, solar physics, radioastronomy, and extragalactic studies, with departments equipped for observational and computational astronomy. Established as part of MSU's astronomical tradition dating to the 19th century, it operates the Caucasian Mountain Observatory featuring a 2.5-meter telescope that has been functional since 2014, enabling high-resolution imaging and supernova monitoring. SAI maintains catalogs of supernova light curves and host galaxies, documenting over 2,900 extragalactic supernovae observed from 1885 onward.[73][74][75] The Institute of Mechanics (IMech MSU), located at 1 Michurinskii Prospect, functions as a premier center for solid, fluid, and computational mechanics, offering unique experimental bases for testing structural dynamics, aerodynamics, and material behaviors under extreme conditions. It supports interdisciplinary applications in engineering and aerospace, with facilities for wind tunnels, vibration testing, and numerical simulations integral to Russia's higher education in mechanics.[76][77] The Research Computing Center (RCC MSU) operates as a dedicated research institute providing supercomputing infrastructure and modeling expertise for complex simulations in physics, chemistry, and biomedicine. Established to bolster MSU's computational capabilities, it encompasses specialized laboratories addressing high-performance computing challenges and has facilitated advancements in areas like turbulent flows and quantum systems.[41] MSU's Science Park serves as an affiliated innovation hub, fostering technology transfer from university research institutes to commercial applications in biotechnology, nanotechnology, and information technologies, with over 100 resident organizations as of recent reports.[78]

Academics and Research

Degree Programs and Curriculum

Moscow State University offers undergraduate programs at the bachelor's and specialist levels, with over 70 such programs available for admission in 2025, primarily taught in Russian and spanning fields such as mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, economics, law, and humanities.[79] Admission for Russian citizens includes budget (free) places awarded competitively based on Unified State Exam (EGE) scores and entrance tests, with paid (contract) places costing approximately 428,000 to 820,000 RUB per year depending on the faculty and program level (e.g., journalism around 513,000–597,000 RUB, economics 750,000–820,000 RUB, law 610,000–720,000 RUB). For foreign citizens, education is paid only, with fees typically ranging from 539,000 to 720,000 RUB per year, and preparatory courses for Russian language around $6,000 USD annually; exact amounts vary by specific program and are detailed on the official MSU website.[80] Bachelor's degrees typically span four years and award 240 credit units, emphasizing foundational theoretical knowledge and broad scientific training, while specialist programs extend to five or six years (360 credit units) in professional fields like medicine or engineering, integrating advanced specialized coursework from the outset.[3] Curricula at these levels feature mandatory core modules in mathematics, physics, and Russian language proficiency, alongside faculty-specific disciplines, with a structure designed to foster deep analytical skills through lectures, seminars, and laboratory work.[29] Master's programs number over 80 for 2025 admissions, lasting two years (120 credit units) and building on undergraduate foundations with a greater focus on research methodologies, elective specializations, and thesis preparation; several are offered in English, including in areas like global processes and international relations.[79][46] The curriculum prioritizes advanced theoretical seminars, independent projects, and interdisciplinary approaches, often requiring proficiency exams and culminating in a defended master's thesis, which serves as an independent qualifying work demonstrating research skills, solution of professional tasks, elements of novelty, and practical significance; requirements vary by faculty but typically feature a structure including title page, table of contents, introduction (addressing relevance, goals, tasks, and novelty), main chapters, conclusion, list of literature, and appendices, with volume differing across faculties (e.g., 50–60 pages in mechanics and mathematics, 80–150 thousand characters in economics), formatting per GOST standards (Times New Roman 14 pt, 1.5 spacing, standard margins), mandatory plagiarism checking via systems like Antiplagiat, supervisor review, external recension, and defense before the State Examination Commission, reflecting MSU's tradition of rigorous, research-integrated graduate education across its 40 faculties.[29][81] PhD (aspirantura) programs prepare candidates in more than 20 specialty areas, typically requiring three to four years of full-time study post-master's, involving dissertation research under faculty supervision, coursework in specialized methodologies, and defense before a scholarly council.[79] These programs align with Russia's Candidate of Sciences degree, emphasizing original contributions to knowledge through empirical investigation and publication, with curricula tailored to fields like fundamental mathematics, physical sciences, and social sciences, supported by access to university research institutes.[3] Across all levels, MSU's educational framework underscores a commitment to fundamental sciences and causal analytical reasoning, with limited practical vocational training in favor of theoretical depth, as evidenced by its historical model of unified faculty-based instruction since the 18th century.[82]

Key Research Areas and Outputs

Moscow State University maintains a strong emphasis on fundamental research in the natural sciences, with particular strengths in physics, mathematics, and chemistry, reflecting its historical role as a center for theoretical advancements during the Soviet era and beyond.[17] Key research priorities encompass fundamental and applied space studies, brain research including cognitive systems and artificial intelligence, molecular technologies and synthetic biology, mathematical methods for modeling complex systems, photonic and quantum technologies, digital medicine, global environmental changes, and preservation of historical and cultural heritage.[83] These efforts are supported by 11 research institutes and over 600 research groups, involving more than 6,000 candidates of science.[83] In physics, MSU has produced seminal contributions to quantum mechanics, superconductivity, and particle physics, with affiliates earning seven Nobel Prizes in the field, including Igor Tamm for the explanation of Cherenkov radiation in 1958 and Vitaly Ginzburg for work on superconductors and superfluids in 2003.[17] The Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear Physics conducts experiments on cosmic rays and high-energy particles, contributing to international collaborations like those at CERN.[70] Mathematics research at MSU, led historically by figures like Andrey Kolmogorov, focuses on probability theory, topology, and dynamical systems, with ongoing work in applied mathematical modeling for complex phenomena.[84] Chemistry efforts highlight inorganic synthesis and materials science, yielding advancements in catalytic processes and nanomaterials.[34] Notable outputs include the launch of research satellites such as Tatiana-1 in 2005, Tatiana-2 in 2009, and Lomonosov in 2016 for studying cosmic gamma-ray bursts and transient events.[83] The "Noah’s Ark Project" has digitized 786,000 plant herbarium samples and 12,000 microorganism and fungi specimens for biodiversity preservation.[83] Computational resources feature supercomputers Lomonosov-1 (1.7 petaflops) and Lomonosov-2 (3 petaflops), ranked 130th globally as of June 2020, enabling simulations in quantum technologies and environmental modeling.[83] MSU researchers have published over 165,000 scientific papers, garnering more than 2.4 million citations, with leading topics in quantum and particle physics, materials science, and nuclear physics per aggregated bibliometric data.[85] In high-impact journals tracked by the Nature Index, contributions span particle physics (16 articles, 6.63 fractional count) and inorganic chemistry (10 articles, 3.62 fractional count) in the 2024-2025 period.[34] Overall, 11 Nobel laureates among faculty and alumni underscore MSU's enduring impact in physics and related fields.[84]

Technological and Computational Resources

The Research Computing Center (RCC) at Moscow State University oversees the institution's supercomputing infrastructure, including maintenance of high-performance computing (HPC) systems and development of parallel processing technologies for applications in physics, climate modeling, and computational linguistics.[41] Established as a key facility for shared HPC resources, the RCC supports thousands of users across disciplines, enabling large-scale simulations and data processing that underpin MSU's research output.[86] The center operates petascale systems designed for scalability, with infrastructure allowing modular upgrades to accommodate evolving computational demands.[87] The flagship Lomonosov-2 supercomputer, deployed in stages beginning in 2014, delivers a peak performance of 4.9 petaflops and has maintained its position as Russia's highest-ranked system on benchmarks like TOP500, with an Rmax of 2.48 FP64 petaflops as of recent listings.[87][88] Equipped with Intel Xeon processors and NVIDIA GPUs, it facilitates diverse workloads from elementary particle physics to environmental modeling.[89] In September 2023, MSU introduced the MSU-270 supercomputer, tailored for artificial intelligence tasks, achieving 400 AI petaflops (optimized for lower-precision operations common in machine learning) and integrating with Lomonosov-2 to form a unified HPC cluster exceeding combined capacities for advanced neural network training and simulation.[90][91] Additional resources include the Department of Supercomputers and Quantum Informatics within the Faculty of Computational Mathematics and Cybernetics, which advances HPC architectures, quantum algorithms, and educational programs in these areas.[92] Facilities operate alongside traditional data centers, with specialized cooling and power systems to handle HPC's distinct requirements, such as high-density computing loads.[93] In 2024, MSU announced a secretive new system dubbed "Sunny Peak," claimed to rank among the world's top supercomputers for AI, though independent verification is absent from global lists like TOP500, and access has been limited to internal users amid reports of restricted external collaboration.[94]

Reputation and Impact

National and International Rankings

In national assessments of Russian universities, Lomonosov Moscow State University maintains the top position. For instance, it ranks first among Russian institutions in the QS World University Rankings 2025 evaluation of domestic performance.[32] Similarly, in Scimago Institutions Rankings focused on higher education in Russia for 2025, it leads with a Q1 classification based on research output and innovation metrics.[95] Internationally, the university's standings vary by methodology, with stronger performance in reputation-driven and research-heavy indices. The following table summarizes key global rankings as of 2025:
Ranking SystemGlobal PositionYearNotes
QS World University Rankings=1052026Emphasizes academic reputation, employer reputation, and citations per faculty.[32]
Times Higher Education World University Rankings=1072025Balances teaching, research environment, research quality, international outlook, and industry.
Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU/Shanghai)101-1502025Prioritizes Nobel/Fields prizes, highly cited researchers, and publication impact.[96]
U.S. News Best Global Universities5212025Focuses on bibliometric reputation, publications, and normalized citations.[97]
These positions reflect MSU's strengths in physics, mathematics, and natural sciences, where it often scores in the top 100 globally in subject-specific evaluations, though broader metrics incorporating international collaboration and teaching quality yield lower overall placements.[32][97]

Scientific and Societal Contributions

Moscow State University has produced significant advancements in physics, with alumni and faculty contributing to fundamental discoveries such as Pyotr Lebedev's 1900 measurement of light pressure on solid bodies and gases, establishing experimental confirmation of electromagnetic radiation momentum.[15] The university's physicists played a key role in the Soviet atomic project, training specialists who advanced nuclear research during the mid-20th century.[98] Eleven of the eighteen Russian Nobel laureates in various fields, including physics, are graduates or professors of the university, underscoring its influence on high-impact research.[1] [43] In space science, MSU researchers developed the Lomonosov satellite, launched in 2016, which achieved the first detection of high-energy cosmic rays and gamma bursts in Earth's upper atmosphere using onboard telescopes, providing data on transient luminous events.[99] This mission advanced understanding of cosmic ray interactions and atmospheric phenomena. Additionally, university efforts contributed to broader Soviet space exploration, including studies of natural resources from orbit and radiation belt discoveries.[100] [101] The mathematics department has driven innovations in probability theory and related fields, with Andrey Kolmogorov's work from the 1930s to 1960s laying foundations for modern probability axioms, turbulence modeling, and algorithmic information theory, influencing computational complexity assessments.[102] MSU-affiliated mathematicians, including six Fields Medal recipients, have shaped global advancements in geometry, topology, and applied mathematics. The university attributes 12 percent of registered Soviet-era scientific discoveries to its researchers, reflecting broad impacts across disciplines.[43] Societally, MSU has bolstered Russia's scientific infrastructure by educating generations of researchers who supported national defense, atomic energy, and space programs, fostering technological self-reliance during the Soviet period.[1] Its supercomputing resources, such as the Lomonosov-2 system achieving 3 petaflops by the 2010s, have enabled large-scale simulations in physics and other fields, enhancing computational research capacity.[103] These efforts have positioned the university as a cornerstone of Russian scientific output, with over 60 Lenin Prizes and 120 State Prizes awarded to its affiliates for foundational contributions.[84]

Critiques of Global Assessments

Critics of global university rankings contend that methodologies employed by systems like QS World University Rankings and Times Higher Education (THE) World University Rankings exhibit systemic biases against non-Western institutions, including Moscow State University (MSU), by prioritizing metrics that favor English-language research outputs and international visibility over intrinsic academic quality. These rankings heavily weight bibliometric indicators, such as publications and citations indexed in predominantly English-centric databases like Scopus and Web of Science, which systematically undervalue scholarship published in national languages like Russian, where much of MSU's foundational work in disciplines such as mathematics and theoretical physics has historically appeared.[104] [105] A 2023 review of Russian-language academic literature on rankings highlights this as evidence that such assessments reinforce Western educational models, measuring not universal excellence but alignment with Anglo-Saxon norms, thereby disadvantaging Russian universities despite their specialized strengths.[104] Reputation surveys, which constitute up to 50% of QS scores and a significant portion of THE evaluations, introduce further subjectivity prone to regional imbalances, with respondents often skewed toward Western academics whose familiarity with MSU may be limited by linguistic and geopolitical barriers.[106] This has led to critiques that MSU's global standing—such as its QS rank of 105th in 2025 and THE position of 94th in 2024—understates its domestic preeminence and historical impact, including producing 11 Nobel laureates and leading Soviet-era scientific advancements, as surveys anchor perceptions to visible, English-accessible outputs rather than comprehensive peer-reviewed achievements.[32] [107] Empirical analyses, including anchoring effect studies, confirm that these surveys perpetuate reputational inertia favoring established Western elites, potentially marginalizing institutions like MSU even when objective indicators, such as ARWU's bibliometric focus, place it in the 101–150 range without heavy subjective input.[108] Commercial conflicts of interest exacerbate these issues, particularly in QS rankings, where a 2021 Berkeley Center for Studies in Higher Education analysis found that Russian universities contracting QS consultancy services—such as for accreditation or promotional audits—experienced ranking gains of approximately 140 positions (0.75 standard deviations) from 2016 to 2021, uncorrelated with verifiable improvements in faculty-student ratios or research quality.[109] While MSU, as Russia's flagship institution, has engaged with international ranking agencies for visibility enhancement, this dynamic raises questions about the independence of scores, as evidenced by parallel improvements in QS-specific submetrics without corresponding rises in neutral indicators like ARWU standings.[110] Critics argue such patterns indicate self-serving distortions, undermining rankings' utility for stakeholders evaluating MSU's rigorous, state-supported STEM programs.[111] Geopolitical factors have intensified these critiques since Russia's 2022 invasion of Ukraine, with MSU's rankings declining amid sanctions-induced isolation—dropping from 87th to 94th in THE by 2024—due to metrics penalizing reduced international collaborations and co-authorships, metrics critics view as conflating external policy with institutional merit.[107] QS's initial 2022 pledge to exclude Russian universities, followed by partial inclusion (e.g., MSU at 75th), exemplifies how rankings incorporate non-academic considerations, potentially reflecting Western institutional biases against state-influenced systems like MSU's, where government ties ensure funding stability but invite reputational discounts unrelated to pedagogical or research efficacy.[112] Proponents of reform advocate for diversified indicators, such as normalized citation impacts across languages or mission-specific evaluations, to better capture MSU's role in national innovation without overpenalizing contextual realities.[113]

People and Community

Faculty and Staff

Lomonosov Moscow State University employs approximately 6,755 faculty and staff members, with 88% domestic and 12% international personnel.[32] The academic workforce includes over 6,000 professors and lecturers, supplemented by about 5,000 researchers affiliated with the university's faculties and research institutes.[114] This staffing supports operations across 39 to 43 faculties and more than 300 departments or chairs, enabling comprehensive coverage of disciplines from humanities to natural sciences.[115] The university's administration is led by Rector Viktor Sadovnichiy, a mathematician and member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, who has held the position since 1992 and was reappointed for a seventh term in late 2024.[58] Under his leadership, the faculty maintains a strong emphasis on advanced qualifications, with thousands of members holding Doctor of Sciences (Sc.D.) or Candidate of Sciences (Ph.D.) degrees, reflecting Russia's rigorous academic credentialing system.[30] Faculty recruitment and retention prioritize expertise in core research areas, though international hires constitute a minority, often focused on specialized fields like economics or computational sciences.[32] Historical faculty have included Nobel laureates such as Lev Landau and Igor Tamm in physics, contributing to the institution's legacy of scientific excellence, while current staff continue to drive outputs in mathematics, physics, and related domains.[114]

Student Demographics and Life

Approximately 47,000 students are enrolled at Moscow State University, encompassing undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels across its 15 faculties and four institutes.[116] Undergraduate programs account for the largest share, with admissions determined primarily by performance on Russia's Unified State Exam, a standardized national assessment that filters applicants based on academic merit in core subjects like mathematics, physics, and Russian language.[85] The student body remains predominantly composed of Russian nationals, reflecting the university's role as a primary destination for domestic higher education, though regional diversity exists with students drawn from all 85 federal subjects of Russia.[117] International students number around 4,000 annually, originating from over 80 countries, with significant contingents from former Soviet states, China, and nations in Africa and Latin America; this represents roughly 8-10% of total enrollment.[62][40] Gender ratios vary by discipline—science and engineering faculties tend toward male majorities, while humanities and social sciences show female majorities, such as 78% female in journalism as of 2022—but university-wide data indicate a slight overall female predominance, consistent with broader Russian higher education trends.[118] Student accommodation is centered in the university's expansive dormitory complex on Sparrow Hills, comprising 13 buildings that house up to 10,000 residents, primarily non-Moscow natives and internationals; rooms are typically shared by two to four students, with facilities including communal kitchens, laundry, and internet access, though maintenance and space constraints have been noted in student accounts.[119] Campus life emphasizes academic rigor alongside extracurriculars, with over 100 sports sections available, including football, volleyball, mountaineering, and sailing, fostering physical fitness amid Moscow's demanding climate.[120] Student organizations span intellectual, creative, and cultural domains, such as debate clubs, theater studios, and scientific societies, enabling skill development in a multicultural environment.[121] Key traditions include St. Tatiana's Day on January 25, marked by celebrations honoring the university's founding in 1755, which unite students in festivities blending academic pride and social bonding.[10] Daily life involves intense study schedules, library access exceeding 10 million volumes, and navigation of the vast 200-hectare campus, which integrates research labs, sports complexes, and green spaces for communal activities.[121]

Notable Alumni and Their Achievements

Moscow State University alumni have made significant contributions across physics, mathematics, literature, and politics, with multiple recipients of the Nobel Prize. In theoretical physics, Igor Tamm graduated in 1918 and shared the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the explanation of the Cherenkov effect, a phenomenon involving charged particles exceeding the speed of light in a medium, which has applications in particle detection.[122] Vitaly Ginzburg, who completed his studies at the Physics Faculty in 1938, advanced theories of superconductivity and superfluidity, earning the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics alongside Abrikosov and Leggett for pioneering work on superconductors and superfluids.[123] Andrei Sakharov, graduating in physics in 1942, played a central role in developing the Soviet thermonuclear bomb before becoming a prominent human rights advocate; he received the 1975 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts against abuses of power and for promoting disarmament and international cooperation.[124] In mathematics, Andrey Kolmogorov, who graduated in 1925, established the axiomatic foundations of probability theory in his 1933 treatise, providing rigorous mathematical structure to the field and influencing statistics, information theory, and turbulence modeling.[125] Literary figures include Anton Chekhov, who earned a medical degree from MSU in 1884 and became a master of the short story and playwright, producing works like The Seagull and Uncle Vanya that emphasized human frailty and social observation without overt didacticism.[126] Boris Pasternak, studying philosophy from 1908 to 1913, won the 1958 Nobel Prize in Literature for Doctor Zhivago, a novel depicting the Russian Revolution's impact on individuals, though he faced Soviet pressure to decline the award.[127] Politically, Mikhail Gorbachev obtained a law degree in 1955 and rose to General Secretary of the Communist Party in 1985, initiating perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) reforms that contributed to ending the Cold War; he was awarded the 1990 Nobel Peace Prize for leadership in arms reduction and East-West relations.[128] These alumni exemplify MSU's historical emphasis on rigorous scientific and intellectual training, yielding advancements grounded in empirical observation and theoretical innovation despite political constraints in the Soviet era.[129]

Controversies and Criticisms

Academic Integrity and Corruption Cases

In 2010, Anastasia Dashkovskaya, an instructor at Moscow State University's Faculty of Philosophy and daughter of dean Mikhail Dashkovsky, faced bribery charges for allegedly accepting 100,000 rubles (approximately $3,300) from students in exchange for inflating grades between 2007 and 2009. Prosecutors appealed the initial dismissal of charges due to insufficient evidence, highlighting connections and procedural issues in enforcement.[130] In July 2018, Vladimir Stepanov-Egiyants, vice-dean of MSU's law faculty and described in reports as involved in the university's anti-corruption efforts, was arrested on charges of large-scale fraud under Article 159 Part 4 of Russia's Criminal Code. He was accused of embezzling up to 39 million rubles (about $650,000) through schemes involving fake documents to acquire cars and cash from a dealership, with 25 million rubles recovered; if convicted, he faced up to 10 years imprisonment and a fine equivalent to $15,000.[131] Plagiarism in doctoral dissertations defended at MSU has been documented by the independent Dissernet project, which identifies falsified theses across Russian institutions, though MSU records fewer such cases than specialized economic universities like Plekhanov Russian University of Economics (382 detected instances as of 2016). Dissernet's analyses, based on textual comparisons, have led to some revocations but reveal persistent issues in academic validation processes at elite institutions including MSU.[132] Broader surveys indicate systemic corruption at Russian universities, including MSU, encompassing bribes for admissions, exam results, and thesis defenses, with education sector employees ranking among top bribe recipients alongside traffic police. Efforts like nationwide entrance exams introduced in 2009 aimed to curb admissions fraud but have not eliminated it, as evidenced by ongoing prosecutions.[133][134]

Political Pressures and Activism Responses

Moscow State University has historically faced political pressures from the Soviet and post-Soviet Russian governments, often resulting in expulsions of dissident students and restrictions on free expression. In the late Soviet period, the history department hosted a dissident circle of young socialists who critiqued the regime's stagnation, accessing restricted Western literature and engaging in underground activities that led to surveillance and repression by authorities.[135] Notable figures such as Andrei Amalrik and Vladimir Bukovsky were expelled in the 1960s for challenging official narratives and participating in human rights advocacy, reflecting the regime's intolerance for intellectual nonconformity within elite institutions.[136] Following Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, MSU experienced intensified government oversight, with the administration aligning closely with state policy to suppress anti-war sentiment. Over 4,000 students, faculty, and alumni signed an open letter condemning the war and expressing solidarity with Ukraine, highlighting pockets of internal resistance despite risks of reprisal.[36] In response, university authorities expelled students for perceived disloyalty, including a Ukrainian national in May 2024 for social media posts criticizing the invasion, and another in April 2024 for renaming a Wi-Fi network "Glory to Ukraine," which led to a 10-day jail sentence.[137][138] These actions align with broader patterns, where Russian universities, including MSU, have dismissed or expelled at least 86 students and 92 professors for political activities over the past decade, often under pretexts violating constitutional protections for education.[139] Administrative measures at MSU have included tightening rules on public statements to prevent association with protests, as seen after 2019-2020 demonstrations, where the university banned faculty and students from invoking institutional affiliation in political commentary to mitigate Kremlin backlash.[140] While overt activism has waned due to these pressures, subtle resistance persists through anonymous networks or private dissent, underscoring the tension between state control and lingering academic autonomy.[141] This dynamic illustrates how MSU, as a flagship institution, serves as a microcosm of Russia's centralized governance over higher education, prioritizing regime loyalty over unfettered inquiry.[142]

Administrative and Ethical Issues

Viktor Sadovnichy has served as rector of Moscow State University since his election in 1992, with subsequent re-elections occurring on a non-competitive basis, which has drawn criticism for limiting accountability and fostering administrative stagnation.[143] This prolonged tenure, spanning over three decades, aligns with broader patterns in Russian higher education where state influence curtails leadership turnover.[144] In June 2025, MSU administration issued directives mandating comprehensive audits of staff publications and speeches, with threats of withheld bonuses and stipends for non-compliance, signaling intensified internal oversight amid external political pressures.[145] Such measures reflect administrative efforts to enforce ideological conformity, potentially at the expense of academic autonomy.[142] Ethical lapses have included inadequate responses to sexual harassment allegations against faculty, with university officials in 2020 refusing to investigate widespread claims documented by student media.[146] Reports from outlets like Doxa highlighted patterns of sexism and inappropriate faculty-student relationships, yet administrative inaction persisted, underscoring failures in ethical governance.[147] Corruption has plagued MSU, exemplified by a 2004 scandal involving the sale of degrees and diplomas, where education sector employees were identified as major bribe recipients comparable to traffic police.[148] Further, in 2018, the university's own anti-corruption expert faced fraud charges, eroding trust in internal integrity mechanisms.[131] These incidents, amid systemic corruption in Russian universities, have prompted calls for reform, though administrative responses have been limited.[133]

Cultural and Institutional Role

Religious Affiliations

Moscow State University maintains a secular character as a state-funded institution, lacking formal affiliation with any religious body, consistent with its founding charter in 1755, which omitted a theological faculty due to the existence of separate ecclesiastical academies in the Russian Empire.[1] During the Soviet period from 1917 to 1991, official atheism suppressed religious activities, with no campus churches or organized worship permitted.[149] Post-Soviet revival of religious expression has integrated elements of Russian Orthodox Christianity into campus life, reflecting broader state encouragement of Orthodoxy as a cultural cornerstone without granting the church administrative control. The university hosts two Orthodox churches: the House Church of the Martyr Tatiana, dedicated to Saint Tatiana as the patroness of students since the 18th century, and the Church of Saints Cyril and Methodius.[150] These facilities support liturgical services, student religious groups, and annual celebrations of Tatiana's Day on January 25, aligning with Russia's tradition of marking it as Students' Day.[10] In 2020, the Moscow Patriarchate announced plans for a new cathedral on campus with capacity for 1,000 worshippers and 27 domes, intended to serve students and faculty, underscoring the Orthodox Church's expanding presence in Russian higher education amid post-1991 collaborations between state institutions and the Patriarchate.[150][151] While Orthodox activities predominate, reflecting Russia's demographic where over 70% identify culturally with Orthodoxy, the university also accommodates studies of world religions through academic programs, such as master's courses on Asian faiths including Buddhism and Islam, without privileging them institutionally.[152] Isolated initiatives, like a 2013 elective on "Orthodox Christian natural science," highlight occasional intersections of faith and curriculum but remain marginal to the secular scientific focus.[153] Non-Orthodox religious sects have faced scrutiny on campus, with reports of targeted recruitment by groups like Jehovah's Witnesses prompting administrative vigilance, though no formal bans apply beyond state-level restrictions on unregistered organizations.[154] Overall, religious engagement at MSU emphasizes cultural Orthodoxy over doctrinal enforcement, with student participation voluntary and tied to national identity rather than mandatory affiliation.

Broader Societal Influence in Russia

Moscow State University (MSU) serves as a cornerstone of Russia's intellectual and scientific establishment, producing a disproportionate share of the nation's elite scientists, engineers, and researchers whose work has underpinned technological and defense advancements. Of the 18 Russian Nobel laureates in the sciences, 11 were graduates or professors at MSU, contributing to fields such as physics, chemistry, and physiology that bolstered Soviet-era achievements in nuclear technology, space exploration, and fundamental research. [1] Additionally, MSU alumni accounted for 12% of all scientific discoveries officially registered in the USSR, influencing industrial applications and military capabilities through innovations in materials science and mathematics. [10] In the political sphere, MSU has played a pivotal role in elite formation, training cadres for governance and policy-making via its Faculty of Political Science, established in 2008 to blend classical traditions with international expertise for future administrators. [155] Graduates have ascended to high-level positions, including Mikhail Gorbachev, who earned a law degree from MSU in 1955 and later as Soviet leader drove perestroika reforms that reshaped Russia's political structure and global standing. [156] The university's emphasis on rigorous, merit-based selection perpetuates a pipeline for intellectual leaders, with its classical model prioritizing highly qualified personnel for managerial roles amid Russia's modernization efforts. [157] MSU also reinforces Russian national identity as a symbol of enduring scholarly excellence, tracing its founding to Lomonosov's 1755 charter under ambitions to elevate Russia's global stature, a legacy that positions it as the "quintessential Russian institution" amid historical rivalries like Moscow versus St. Petersburg. [158] As Russia's largest classical university with 41 faculties and extensive research institutes, it sets benchmarks for higher education nationwide, fostering patriotism and specialized expertise demanded by industry and state priorities. [159] President Vladimir Putin highlighted this in 2025, noting MSU's "leading and backbone role" in defining educational and scientific standards across the system. [160] This influence extends to cultural spheres, where alumni like physicist Andrei Sakharov, an MSU graduate who co-developed the hydrogen bomb before becoming a human rights advocate, exemplify the tension between state-driven progress and dissident thought. [161]

References

  1. History and traditions
  2. Lomonosov Moscow State University
  3. Lomonosov Moscow State University - STUDY IN RUSSIA 2023-24
  4. On the 270th Anniversary of Lomonosov Moscow State University
  5. The Founding of Moscow University
  6. Moscow University founded | Presidential Library
  7. [PDF] CHAPTER 1 THE FOUNDING OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY
  8. [PDF] page 1 CHAPTER 2 CATHERINE THE GREAT AND MOSCOW ...
  9. [PDF] M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University is the ... - Chembaby
  10. Moscow State University - Express to Russia
  11. Moscow University through Revolution and the Soviet Period
  12. History & Myths of Moscow State University - Museum Studies Abroad
  13. Great Victory of Soviet Science
  14. Moscow University 1755-1955 - jstor
  15. A glimse back into the history of the Faculty of Physics
  16. Stalin Prizes and Scholarships - Seventeen Moments in Soviet History
  17. Physics at Moscow State University
  18. Memorials of Mathematicians in Moscow | The Mathematical ...
  19. Russia woos lost scientists - Nature
  20. Russian Brain Drain Threatens Russian Military-Industrial Complex
  21. Rip it up and start again | Times Higher Education (THE)
  22. Prominent Russians: Viktor Sadovnichy - Russiapedia
  23. Russian Underworld Extends to Higher Education
  24. Viktor Sadovnichy - RIAC
  25. Meeting with Moscow State University Rector Viktor Sadovnichy
  26. Meeting with Moscow State University Rector Viktor Sadovnichy
  27. (PDF) The Bologna Process Policy Implementation in Russia and ...
  28. Russia to Quit European Standards System for Higher Education
  29. Lomonosov Moscow State University - UniPage
  30. EDUCOM.NET - Lomonosov Moscow State University
  31. Moscow State University [2025 Rankings by topic] - EduRank.org
  32. Lomonosov Moscow State University - TopUniversities
  33. Russian scientists' international collaborations to be vetted ... - Science
  34. Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU) | Nature Index - Nature
  35. VNU and Lomonosov Moscow State University collaborate on ...
  36. Putin's War On Ukraine Is A War On Academic Freedom (And An ...
  37. The main building of Moscow State University – tallest of the Stalin ...
  38. Sparrow Hills, Moscow - Express to Russia
  39. Moscow State University in Moscow - SKYDB
  40. About MSU
  41. About | RCC, Lomonosov Moscow State Universoty - НИВЦ МГУ
  42. [PDF] FACT SHEET 2020 – 2021 FOR PARTNER UNIVERSITIES AND ...
  43. [PDF] KNOWLEDGE CREATES FUTURE - МГУ
  44. tangible immovable Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow, Russia
  45. MSU campus - МГУ имени М.В.Ломоносова
  46. [PDF] PROGRAMS TAUGHT IN ENGLISH
  47. [PDF] ВЕСТНИК 34 - Зоологический музей МГУ
  48. Капитальный ремонт в МГУ
  49. В главном здании МГУ на Воробьевых горах привели в порядок ...
  50. Фасады зданий МГУ начали ремонтировать на Моховой и ...
  51. В Москве начался капремонт шпиля главного здания МГУ им. М.В ...
  52. В Москве начался капремонт шпиля главного здания МГУ имени ...
  53. На Моховой улице в Москве начался ремонт фасадов зданий ...
  54. Портал строительного комплекса Российской Федерации
  55. В МГУ построят новые корпуса и общежитие для ... - VK
  56. Meeting on creating a network of up-to-date campuses
  57. News - The Russian Government
  58. Leaders of education. Who leads universities in Russia?
  59. Victor Antonovich Sadovnichy - MSU
  60. Meeting of Moscow State University Board of Trustees
  61. Victor Sadovnichy - OpenSanctions
  62. Moscow State University Faculty of Economics
  63. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia - Math-Net.Ru
  64. https://en.ukc-sputnik.ru/msu
  65. Contacts of faculties' international offices
  66. Московский государственный университет имени М.В. Ломоносова
  67. Программы бакалавриата и специалитета
  68. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia - Math-Net.Ru
  69. [PDF] welcome to lomonosov moscow state university
  70. SINP MSU - МГУ
  71. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Skobeltsyn Institute of Nuclear ...
  72. Physics flies high at SINP - CERN Courier
  73. Sternberg Astronomical Institute
  74. Caucasian mountain observatory of Sternberg astronomical institute
  75. SAISNCAT - Sternberg Astronomical Institute Catalog of Supernovae
  76. About the Institute - НИИ механики МГУ
  77. About the Institute of Mechanics
  78. http://www.sciencepark.ru/en/
  79. Programs
  80. Lomonosov Moscow State university - UniBase - Study in Russia
  81. [PDF] welcome to lomonosov moscow state university
  82. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia - Math-Net.Ru
  83. Moscow State University [Acceptance Rate + Statistics] - EduRank
  84. [PDF] MAKING SUPERCOMPUTERS SMART: THE MOSCOW STATE ...
  85. Moscow State University Supercomputing Center | ЛПИТ
  86. Shining a Light on Lomonosov-2, Russia's Fastest Supercomputer
  87. Moscow State University - Research Computing Center | TOP500
  88. Russian 400 AI PetaFLOPS Supercomputer for AI Comes Online
  89. Russia's Moscow State University gets AI supercomputer - DCD
  90. Department of Supercomputers and Quantum Informatics | CMC MSU
  91. Moscow State University Meets HPC Demands - Uptime Institute Blog
  92. "Sunny Peak" of Sparrow Hills.How big computational science at ...
  93. University Rankings - Russian Federation 2025
  94. Moscow State University - Shanghai Ranking
  95. Lomonosov Moscow State University - U.S. News & World Report
  96. Moscow State University physics alumni and the Soviet Atomic Project
  97. Scientific achievements during the operation of Lomonosov satellite
  98. IKI History. From the Project of the Joint Institute for Space Research ...
  99. Space Physics | SINP MSU
  100. Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov - Scholarpedia
  101. [PDF] WELCOME TO THE LOMONOSOV MOSCOW STATE
  102. Review of the Russian-language academic literature on university ...
  103. Abandon Your University Rankings, It's a Flawed System
  104. [PDF] University rankings: A review of methodological flaws
  105. Isolation erodes Russian universities' rankings standing
  106. Anchoring Effects in World University Rankings: Exploring Biases in ...
  107. Berkeley study: major university rankings may be biased
  108. Does conflict of interest distort global university rankings?
  109. Study charges QS with conflicts of interest in international rankings
  110. QS ranks Russian universities despite vow not to - Inside Higher Ed
  111. Stop using rankings to evaluate research, study recommends
  112. [PDF] Lomonosov Moscow State University - UArctic
  113. M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University|Global Universities
  114. Lomonosov Moscow State University
  115. Lomonosov Moscow State University: Fees, Ranking & Courses
  116. Fast Facts about the Faculty of Journalism
  117. Study at Lomonosov Moscow State University 2025
  118. Student Life
  119. Student Life - МГУ имени М.В.Ломоносова
  120. Igor Y. Tamm – Biographical - NobelPrize.org
  121. Vitaly L. Ginzburg – Biographical - NobelPrize.org
  122. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Andrey-Sakharov
  123. Andrey Kolmogorov (1903 - 1987) - Biography - MacTutor
  124. Biographical Sketch - Anton Chekhov - Dartmouth Journeys
  125. Boris Pasternak – Biographical - NobelPrize.org
  126. Mikhail S. Gorbachev | Academy of Achievement
  127. Biography - Mikhail Gorbachev
  128. The Moscow Times
  129. University's anti-corruption expert charged with fraud
  130. Dissernet Ranks Russian Universities According to Plagiarism
  131. [PDF] Corruption at Russian Universities - Anticorrp
  132. Russia Cracks Down on Fraud in College Entrance Exam
  133. Young and socialist at Moscow State University: Dissident ...
  134. Sheila Fitzpatrick · Disturbers of the Peace - London Review of Books
  135. Moscow State University Expels Ukrainian Student for Anti-War Posts
  136. Russian student jailed for pro-Ukraine wi-fi name - BBC
  137. How Russian universities are cracking down on anti-war activists
  138. Moscow university tightens political speech rules after protests
  139. In Russia's Universities, Anti-War Voices Are Silenced. But ...
  140. Insights from Russia on Academic Freedom During War | AAUP
  141. Sadovnichy – The database “PUTIN'S LIST”
  142. How Russian university administrations were tamed by the state
  143. Don't leave room 663: Moscow State University staff face total audit ...
  144. Russia's Top University Ignores 'Commonplace' Sexual Harassment ...
  145. Sexism, harassment, and dating the faculty The controversy behind ...
  146. Degrees for sale: corruption scandal engulfs Russia's leading
  147. What was it like to be a religious person who practiced their faith in ...
  148. Grand Orthodox Cathedral Planned for Moscow State University ...
  149. Russian Orthodox Church Asserts Role in Civil Society
  150. Innovative Master's Program of Moscow State University
  151. Moscow State University establishes a course on "Orthodox ...
  152. What does a Russian student believe in? - Pravmir
  153. Faculty of Political Science
  154. 100 Notable Alumni of Moscow State University [Sorted List]
  155. ROLE OF THE CLASSICAL UNIVERSITY IN ELITE ...
  156. Moscow State University: The Quintessential Russian Institution
  157. Moscow State University celebrates its 270th anniversary
  158. Visit to Lomonosov Moscow State University - President of Russia
  159. 7 most FAMOUS graduates of the Moscow State University
  160. Положение о магистерской диссертации
  161. MSU Admissions
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