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Book of Rites
The Book of Rites, also known as the Liji (禮記), is a collection of texts that describe the social forms, administrative structures, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty, as interpreted during the Warring States period and the early Han dynasty. Together with the Rites of Zhou (Zhōulǐ, 周禮) and the Book of Etiquette and Rites (Yílǐ, 儀禮), it forms part of the "Three Li" (Sānlǐ, 三禮), which comprise the ritual (lǐ, 禮) component of the Five Classics—a foundational set of texts in the Confucian tradition. Each of the Five Classics is a compilation of works rather than a single text.
As a core Confucian text, the Book of Rites is also referred to as the Classic of Rites or Lijing (禮經). Some scholars suggest that Lijing was the original title before it was changed by the Han dynasty scholar Dai Sheng.
The Book of Rites is a diverse compilation of texts of uncertain origin and date. Unlike the Rites of Zhou and the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial, it lacks a consistent overall structure. Some sections provide definitions of ritual terminology—particularly those found in the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial—while others contain details concerning the life and teachings of Confucius. Portions of the text have been traced to pre-Han works such as the Xunzi and the Lüshi Chunqiu, while other sections are believed to have been composed during the Former Han period.
During the reign of Qin Shi Huang, many Confucian texts were destroyed in the 213 BCE "Burning of the Books." However, the Qin dynasty collapsed within a decade, and Confucian scholars who had memorised the classics or hidden written copies helped to reconstruct them during the early Han dynasty. The Book of Rites was said to have been fully recovered, although the Classic of Music could not be recompiled. Only fragments of the latter survive, primarily within the "Record of Music" (Yueji) chapter of the Book of Rites.[citation needed]
Subsequent efforts were made to edit and organise the recompiled texts. According to the Book of Sui, the scholar Dai De revised the collection in the 1st century BCE, reducing it from 214 books to 85, known as the Ritual Records of Dai the Elder (大戴禮記; Dà Dài Lǐjì). His nephew, Dai Sheng, later abridged this to 46 books, known as the Ritual Records of Dai the Younger (小戴禮記; Xiǎo Dài Lǐjì). The scholar Ma Rong subsequently added three additional books, bringing the total to 49. However, later scholarship has questioned this account, noting a lack of reliable evidence attributing these specific revisions to Dai De or Dai Sheng, although both were known Confucian scholars with expertise in ritual texts.
During this period, both old-script and new-script versions of the text were in circulation, and the content was not yet standardised. Zheng Xuan, a student of Ma Rong, produced an annotated edition of the Rites by synthesising multiple ritual traditions. His compilation of 49 books became the authoritative version, and it remains the standard edition today. Zheng Xuan's annotated version later formed the basis for the Right Meaning of the Ritual Records (禮記正義; Lǐjì Zhèngyì), the imperially sanctioned text and commentary on the Book of Rites, established in 653 CE.
In 1993, a copy of the "Black Robes" chapter was discovered in Tomb 1 of the Guodian tombs in Jingmen, Hubei province. As the tomb was sealed around 300 BCE, the discovery reignited scholarly debate regarding the dating of other chapters of the Liji, particularly their possible origins in the Warring States period.
Confucius described li (禮) as encompassing all traditional forms that provided a standard of conduct. While li is often translated as "rites," it may also refer to "ceremonial practices" or "rules of conduct." Over time, the term has come to be broadly associated with concepts such as "good form," "decorum," and "politeness."
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Book of Rites
The Book of Rites, also known as the Liji (禮記), is a collection of texts that describe the social forms, administrative structures, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty, as interpreted during the Warring States period and the early Han dynasty. Together with the Rites of Zhou (Zhōulǐ, 周禮) and the Book of Etiquette and Rites (Yílǐ, 儀禮), it forms part of the "Three Li" (Sānlǐ, 三禮), which comprise the ritual (lǐ, 禮) component of the Five Classics—a foundational set of texts in the Confucian tradition. Each of the Five Classics is a compilation of works rather than a single text.
As a core Confucian text, the Book of Rites is also referred to as the Classic of Rites or Lijing (禮經). Some scholars suggest that Lijing was the original title before it was changed by the Han dynasty scholar Dai Sheng.
The Book of Rites is a diverse compilation of texts of uncertain origin and date. Unlike the Rites of Zhou and the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial, it lacks a consistent overall structure. Some sections provide definitions of ritual terminology—particularly those found in the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial—while others contain details concerning the life and teachings of Confucius. Portions of the text have been traced to pre-Han works such as the Xunzi and the Lüshi Chunqiu, while other sections are believed to have been composed during the Former Han period.
During the reign of Qin Shi Huang, many Confucian texts were destroyed in the 213 BCE "Burning of the Books." However, the Qin dynasty collapsed within a decade, and Confucian scholars who had memorised the classics or hidden written copies helped to reconstruct them during the early Han dynasty. The Book of Rites was said to have been fully recovered, although the Classic of Music could not be recompiled. Only fragments of the latter survive, primarily within the "Record of Music" (Yueji) chapter of the Book of Rites.[citation needed]
Subsequent efforts were made to edit and organise the recompiled texts. According to the Book of Sui, the scholar Dai De revised the collection in the 1st century BCE, reducing it from 214 books to 85, known as the Ritual Records of Dai the Elder (大戴禮記; Dà Dài Lǐjì). His nephew, Dai Sheng, later abridged this to 46 books, known as the Ritual Records of Dai the Younger (小戴禮記; Xiǎo Dài Lǐjì). The scholar Ma Rong subsequently added three additional books, bringing the total to 49. However, later scholarship has questioned this account, noting a lack of reliable evidence attributing these specific revisions to Dai De or Dai Sheng, although both were known Confucian scholars with expertise in ritual texts.
During this period, both old-script and new-script versions of the text were in circulation, and the content was not yet standardised. Zheng Xuan, a student of Ma Rong, produced an annotated edition of the Rites by synthesising multiple ritual traditions. His compilation of 49 books became the authoritative version, and it remains the standard edition today. Zheng Xuan's annotated version later formed the basis for the Right Meaning of the Ritual Records (禮記正義; Lǐjì Zhèngyì), the imperially sanctioned text and commentary on the Book of Rites, established in 653 CE.
In 1993, a copy of the "Black Robes" chapter was discovered in Tomb 1 of the Guodian tombs in Jingmen, Hubei province. As the tomb was sealed around 300 BCE, the discovery reignited scholarly debate regarding the dating of other chapters of the Liji, particularly their possible origins in the Warring States period.
Confucius described li (禮) as encompassing all traditional forms that provided a standard of conduct. While li is often translated as "rites," it may also refer to "ceremonial practices" or "rules of conduct." Over time, the term has come to be broadly associated with concepts such as "good form," "decorum," and "politeness."