Hubbry Logo
Pinus contortaPinus contortaMain
Open search
Pinus contorta
Community hub
Pinus contorta
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Pinus contorta
Pinus contorta
Pinus contorta
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

Lodgepole pine
Pinus contorta subsp. contorta in Anacortes Community Forest Lands, Washington

Secure  (NatureServe)[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Gymnospermae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order: Pinales
Family: Pinaceae
Genus: Pinus
Subgenus: P. subg. Pinus
Section: P. sect. Trifoliae
Subsection: P. subsect. Contortae
Species:
P. contorta
Binomial name
Pinus contorta
Subspecies

4, see text

Distribution map:
  • Pinus contorta subsp. contorta
  • P. contorta subsp. latifolia
  • P. contorta subsp. murrayana

Pinus contorta, with the common names lodgepole pine, shore pine, twisted pine,[3] and contorta pine,[3] is an evergreen species of conifer tree. It is a common pine in western North America, found near the ocean shore and in dry montane forests to the subalpine, but is rare in lowland rain forests.

Description

[edit]

Depending on subspecies, Pinus contorta grows as an evergreen shrub or tree. The shrub form is krummholz and is approximately 1 to 3 meters (3 to 10 ft) high. The thin and narrow-crowned tree can grow 40 to 50 m (130 to 160 ft) high and achieve up to 2 m (7 ft) in diameter at chest height.[4] The murrayana subspecies is the tallest. The crown is rounded and the top of the tree is flattened. In dense forests, the tree has a slim, conical crown. The formation of twin trees is common in some populations in British Columbia. The elastic branches stand upright or overhang and are difficult to break. The branches are covered with short shoots that are easy to remove.[5][6][7]

The species name is contorta because of the twisted, bent pines (shore pine)[8] found at coastal areas and the tree's twisted needles.[9][10][11] Pinus contorta is occasionally known under several English names: black pine, scrub pine, and coast pine.[12][13] P. contorta subsp. latifolia will hybridise with the closely related jack pine (P. banksiana).

The bark of lodgepole pine is thin, scaly and grayish brown.[8] Shore pine bark is somewhat thick and corky, fissuring into a checkered pattern.[8] Some lodgepole pines have been reported in low elevations with features closer to those of the shore pine, including the bark.[8]

Tamarack pine can grow up to centuries old and lodgepole pines in Yellowstone Park have survived over 300 years.[8]

Lodgepole pine being trained as bonsai. Notice the use of wire to position the branches of the tree. This is a yamadori (wild collected specimen) and has been styled by American bonsai artist Bjorn Bjorholm.

Foliage

[edit]
The needles are 4 to 8 cm (1+1⁄2 to 3 in) long in fascicles of two, alternate on twigs. The female cones are 3 to 7 cm (1 to 3 in) long with sharp-tipped scales.

The egg-shaped growth buds are reddish-brown and between 20 and 30 millimeters (3⁄4 and 1+1⁄4 in) long. They are short pointed, slightly rotated, and very resinous. Spring growth starts in beginning of April and the annual growth is completed by early July. The dark and mostly shiny needles are pointed and 4 to 8 centimeters (1+1⁄2 to 3 in) long and 0.9 to 2 mm (1⁄32 to 3⁄32 in) wide. The needle edge is weakly to strongly serrated. The needles are in pairs on short shoots and rotated about the shoots' longitudinal axes. In Alberta above 2,000 m (6,600 ft), 1 to 5 needles occur per short shoot. A population with a high proportion of three-needled short shoots occurs in the Yukon. Needles live an average of four to six years, with a maximum of 13 years.[6] The foliage of lodgepole pine is yellow-green as compared to shore pine, which is dark green.[8]

Cones

[edit]

The cones of lodgepole and shore pine begin to be produced when the trees are about ten years old.[8] The cones are 3–7 cm (1–3 in) long, with prickles on the scales.[8]

Many populations of the Rocky Mountain subspecies, P. contorta subsp. latifolia, have serotinous cones. This means that the cones are closed and must be exposed to high temperatures, such as from forest fires, in order to open and release their seeds.[14] The variation in their serotiny has been correlated with wildfires and mountain pine beetle attacks.[15] The cones of the coastal Pacific subspecies, P. contorta subsp. contorta, are typically non-serotinous,[13] and those of the inland Pacific subspecies, P. contorta subsp. murrayana, are completely non-serotinous.[16] Sometimes cones will become buried by the continued growth of a branch. If the seeds are collected, they have germinated as much as 150 years after confinement.[17]

Distribution

[edit]

Pinus contorta occurs from upper, dry montane forests to the subalpine region of western North America.[18][19][5] It can be found on the western side of the Cascades, in inland British Columbia, and on the Rocky Mountains in Alberta, except where it is too high and dry.[8] Lodgepole pine can tolerate relatively hostile environments such as high-elevation volcanic rock in Central Oregon (e.g. Crater Lake) and thin soils on the eastern slope of the Cascades.[8] Further south, the species can be found in higher elevations up to 3,350 m (10,990 ft) above sea level, particularly in southern Colorado.[8] It is rare in lowland rain forests.[19][5] Shore pine can be found in very infertile soils in coastal regions from Southeast Alaska to Northern California.[8]

Lodgepole and shore pine can be found intermingled (and apparently hybridized) north of Puget Sound.[8] Less dependent on fire, tamarack pine can be found in California's upper mountains and mingled with lodgepole in Oregon.[8] Pinus contorta can be found in the closed-cone pine forest of coastal California.

Ecology

[edit]

Pinus contorta is a fire-adapted species, often regenerating densely following wildfire. The species displays characteristically poor self pruning and thin bark usually results in the death of the tree following fire. Importantly however, the heat from fire results in the opening of their serotinous cones and release of seeds. This allows the species to regenerate well after fire and maintain its place in the forest habitat as an early successional species.[20] It otherwise fares poorly in crowds as other species are more shade tolerant, although some (e.g. firs) are more susceptible to fire. Some populations demonstrate more significant reliance on other modes of regeneration rather than fire, with wind through, ice storms, and land slides also acting as stand replacing disturbances.[8]

P. contorta subsp. latifolia forest 23 years before (above) and 10 years after (below) the Yellowstone fires of 1988

The natural fire regime for this species is primarily driven by climate. The fires occur most often after years of drought. Forests in the upper montane to subalpine region experience much moisture in the winter via snow. The density of tree stands with the species inhibit the establishment of an understory (allowing ladder fuel to form), and surface fire is rare regardless. Thus, infrequent but severe fires dominate this species.[20]

An example of the climate that plays a huge role in the fire regime of the species is quite complex. There are three different oscillations that play a major role in droughts. These are the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO), Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) and El Niño (ENSO). A combination of these oscillations being in effect (+) or not in effect (−) have a global effect on the water available to these forests. The combination of AMO +, ENSO − and PDO − means there is going to be a drought and likely a severe subalpine fire.[21]

A cluster of pollen-bearing male cones at Mount San Antonio

Suillus tomentosus, a fungus, produces specialized structures called tuberculate ectomycorrhizae with the roots of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia). These structures have been shown to be the location of concentrations of nitrogen-fixing bacteria which contribute a significant amount of nitrogen to tree growth and allow the pines to colonize nutrient-poor sites.[22][23]

Porcupines consume the inner bark of lodgepole pine.[8]

Threats

[edit]

Larger members of the species are attacked by mountain pine beetles, which it fights with pitch but can be overwhelmed.[8] It is also affected by blue stain fungus (Grosmannia clavigera), which the mountain pine beetle carries in its mouth. Dwarf mistletoe also leeches off the species. Both the threat of pine beetles and dwarf mistletoe are curbed by wildfires, which occurred less in the 20th century due to firefighting. More recently, unthreatening lightning-sparked fires have been allowed to burn in wilderness areas in Idaho and Montana.[8] Exceptional cold can kill some of the beetles.[8]

A study released in 2011 concluded that Pinus contorta could experience significant reductions in distribution due to climate change by the late 21st century.[24][25]

As an invasive species

[edit]

Pinus contorta is considered a serious invasive species of wilding conifer in New Zealand, along with several other western North American pine species. It is listed on the National Pest Plant Accord and is prohibited from sale, commercial propagation, and distribution.

Subspecies

[edit]

There are four subspecies of Pinus contorta, and one of them is sometimes considered to have two varieties.[26] The subspecies are sometimes treated at the rank of variety.[3][4][27]

Cone Image Subspecies Common name Distribution
Pinus contorta subsp. bolanderi Bolander's beach pine, Bolander pine, Also treated as Pinus contorta subsp. contorta var. bolanderi, in which case what is treated here as Pinus contorta subsp. contorta is the variety Pinus contorta subsp. contorta var. contorta.[28] endemic to Mendocino County on the northwestern California coast;[29] near threatened by fires and development
Pinus contorta subsp. contorta shore pine Pacific Coast, southern Alaska to northwest California.[9][30][31]
Pinus contorta subsp. murrayana tamarack pine, or Sierra lodgepole pine[32] Cascade Range from Oregon into northern California; the Sierra Nevada, the Transverse Ranges of southern California (including the San Bernardino Mountains, the Peninsular Ranges into northern Baja California, and the Spring Mountains of southern Nevada).[33][9][34]
Pinus contorta subsp. latifolia lodgepole pine Rocky Mountains, Colorado to Yukon and Saskatchewan; aspen parkland and boreal forests.[35][36][37]

Uses

[edit]

Construction

[edit]

The common name "lodgepole pine" comes from the custom of Native Americans using the tall, straight trees to construct lodges (tepees) in the Rocky Mountain area.[8] Lodgepole pine was used by European settlers to build log cabins.[8] Logs are still used in rural areas as posts, fences, lumber, and firewood.[8] Shore pine pitch has historically been used as glue.[8]

Tree plantations of Pinus contorta have been planted extensively in Norway, Sweden,[38] Ireland and the UK for forestry, such as timber uses. In Iceland it is used for reforestation and afforestation purposes.[39] It is also commonly used for pressure-treated lumber throughout North America.

Food

[edit]

Native Americans consumed the inner bark of lodgepole pine to prevent starvation for themselves and their horses.[8] The lodgepole pine cambium layer's edibility is dependent on thickness, consistency, and sweetness.[40]

Medicinal

[edit]

The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest and of California used different parts of the plant internally and externally as a traditional medicine for various ailments.[41] The gum of shore pine was used medicinally as well as for chewing.[8]

Cultivation

[edit]

Pinus contorta is cultivated as an ornamental tree by the horticulture industry. Plant nurseries grow Pinus contorta subsp. contorta and Pinus contorta subsp. murrayana for use in traditional and wildlife gardens, and as smaller selections of the native plant for natural landscaping. The shore pine's smaller varieties and cultivars are also used in container gardening, including as large bonsai specimens.

Cultivars of this species include:

  • "Chief Joseph", a dwarf variety of Pinus contorta var. latifolia grown for its yellow winter needles
  • "Spaan's Dwarf", a dwarf variety of Pinus contorta var. contorta that grows wider than it grows tall

The cultivar "Chief Joseph" has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[42][43]

Emblem

[edit]

Lodgepole pine is the provincial tree of Alberta, Canada.[44]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Pinus contorta

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Pinus contorta, commonly known as or , is a medium-sized in the family () native to western , characterized by its slender, twisted needles in pairs and small, serotinous cones that require for release. It typically grows as a to 50 meters tall with a trunk diameter up to 90 cm, though it can form shrubs in harsh coastal or high-elevation environments, featuring thin, scaly bark that is orange-brown to red-brown. The exhibits high ecological , thriving in diverse habitats from coastal dunes and bogs to subalpine forests and -prone montane sites, often on poor, sandy, or rocky soils at elevations ranging from to 3,900 meters. Distributed across a vast range from the in (64° N) southward to in (31° N) and eastward to the of , P. contorta occupies approximately 26 million hectares, predominantly in the and Pacific coastal regions. It is divided into four recognized varieties or subspecies—var. contorta (shore pine, coastal lowlands), var. latifolia (Rocky Mountain lodgepole, interior highlands), var. murrayana (Sierra lodgepole, California mountains), and var. bolanderi (mendocino white pine, restricted coastal areas)—each adapted to specific environmental conditions. Ecologically, it plays a key role as a in post-fire succession, with dense, even-aged stands forming after disturbances due to its prolific seeding and fire-adapted traits, though it is also vulnerable to outbreaks of mountain pine beetles. The tolerates extreme climates, from -57°C winters to over 38°C summers and annual precipitation as low as 250 mm or exceeding 5,000 mm in coastal areas. Notable for its straight-grained wood used historically in Native American tipis and log construction (hence "lodgepole"), P. contorta is commercially important for timber, pulp, and plywood, supporting significant forestry industries in North America. It has been introduced to Europe and New Zealand, where it sometimes naturalizes aggressively in plantations. Associated with over two dozen forest cover types, it commonly co-occurs with species like Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, Douglas-fir, and ponderosa pine, contributing to biodiversity in mixed coniferous ecosystems.

Description

Physical characteristics

Pinus contorta is an typically reaching a mature height of 15 to 40 meters (though often shorter in coastal forms), with exceptional individuals up to 50 meters, and trunk diameters of 0.3 to 1 meter. The tree features a slender, straight trunk that supports its overall morphology, often exhibiting minimal taper in forest-grown specimens. Its bark is thin and scaly, presenting an orange-brown to grayish-red coloration that becomes more fissured with age. The crown morphology of P. contorta varies significantly with environmental conditions, forming a narrow and conical shape in dense stands while developing into a more open and rounded form in exposed or open areas. As an , it generally maintains a single main stem, fostering upright growth in most inland forms; however, the coastal subspecies (P. contorta var. contorta, known as shore pine) often adopts a bushy, shrub-like with crooked branches. The wood of P. contorta consists of light yellow sapwood and pale yellow to orange-red heartwood, which are not sharply demarcated. It has a density of approximately 450 kg/m³ at air-dry conditions, features straight grain, and is medium-fine in texture, though it is prone to warping during drying due to its growth characteristics.

Needles and bark

The needles of Pinus contorta occur in fascicles of two, measuring 3 to 7 cm in length, and are characterized by their stiff, twisted, and sharply pointed form. These needles exhibit a blue-green coloration, with prominent stomatal lines visible on their surfaces, aiding in and contributing to their distinctive appearance. They persist on the tree for 4 to 6 years, with some reports of up to 8 years in certain populations, providing extended photosynthetic capacity in varying environmental conditions. Juvenile needles occasionally appear in fascicles of three, particularly in northern populations such as those in the Yukon Territory, representing a developmental variation that transitions to the typical paired adult form. Seasonally, the older interior needles undergo physiological changes, turning yellow in autumn prior to shedding, which helps manage nutrient reallocation and reduces water loss during winter . Across , needle characteristics show subtle variations; for instance, coastal forms like P. contorta var. contorta (shore pine) tend to have shorter, more irregularly twisted needles compared to the inland var. latifolia. The bark of Pinus contorta is thin, typically reaching up to 1 cm in thickness, with a flaky and furrowed texture that develops from smooth young bark to scaly and irregularly plated in maturity. This structure, often grayish-brown to reddish in color, offers limited resistance due to its minimal insulation against cambial heat, though it plays a role in regulation by facilitating limited and protecting underlying vascular tissues. variations include slightly thicker bark in inland varieties at lower elevations, enhancing marginal tolerance to environmental stresses compared to the thinner bark in coastal forms.

Cones and reproduction structures

The seed cones of Pinus contorta are ovoid to cylindrical in shape, typically measuring 3 to 6 cm in length, and initially appear green to yellow before aging to orange-brown; they are armed with prickles up to 3 mm long on the umbos of the scales. These female cones are sessile or borne on short stalks up to 3 mm long and mature over two years, with occurring in the first spring followed by seed development in the second year. In many populations, the cones exhibit serotiny, remaining tightly closed and retaining seeds until heat from causes the scales to open and release them. Non-serotinous cones, more common in certain such as P. contorta subsp. murrayana, open at maturity without requiring exposure. Male cones, responsible for pollen production, are small and cylindrical, measuring 5 to 15 mm in length, yellow when fertile, and occur in dense clusters of 10 to 20 or more at the base of new shoots or on lower branches. is dispersed by during spring, typically from mid-May to mid-July depending on and , enabling cross-fertilization across populations. Each mature seed cone contains numerous seeds that are obovoid, 3 to 4 mm long, and black with a dorsal scar, often featuring minute vesicles on the adaxial surface; attached wings are dark brown, 8 to 12 mm long and 4 to 5 mm wide, facilitating dispersal shortly after release from the .

Taxonomy

Etymology and naming

The scientific name Pinus contorta derives from the genus Pinus, the classical Latin term for trees, and the specific contorta, meaning "twisted" in Latin, which alludes to the contorted growth form of the coastal or the twisted arrangement of its needles. Common names for the species reflect its regional forms and uses, including "lodgepole pine" for the straight-trunked interior variety, named for its historical use by in constructing lodgepoles for tipis and shelters; "shore pine" or "beach pine" for the coastal form, due to its occurrence along Pacific shores; and other regional names such as twisted pine, black pine, and bird's-eye pine. The species was first collected and informally described by the Scottish botanist David Douglas during his explorations in western , with the formal scientific description published by in 1838 as Pinus contorta in his work Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum. Several synonyms exist, primarily at the level, including Pinus contorta var. contorta (shore ), P. contorta var. murrayana (Sierra lodgepole ; synonym Pinus murrayana), P. contorta var. bolanderi (Bolander ). Indigenous names vary by and group; for example, in the Coast Salish dialect, it is known as lá:yelhp, while the Interior Salish Státimcets term is qwelítaz, often referencing the tree's twisted branches suitable for traditional structures.

Subspecies and varieties

Pinus contorta is commonly classified into four varieties or , each adapted to distinct environmental conditions within its range, though taxonomic authorities differ on the rank (e.g., some recognize three with bolanderi as a variety of contorta). These are P. c. subsp. contorta (shore pine), P. c. subsp. latifolia (Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine), P. c. subsp. murrayana (Sierra lodgepole pine), and P. c. subsp. bolanderi (Mendocino white pine). Subspecies contorta occurs in coastal lowlands and bogs, typically forming a bushy, shrubby up to 10-15 m tall, with non-serotinous cones that open annually and 2-7 cm long. In contrast, latifolia inhabits the at higher elevations, growing as tall, slender trees to 30-50 m with highly serotinous cones that remain closed until , and longer 4-8 cm. Subspecies murrayana is found in the Sierra Nevada of , reaching heights of 20-40 m with intermediate traits, including mostly non-serotinous cones and ascending branches. The rare bolanderi, endemic to coastal dunes in , is the smallest, often stunted to under 5 m on poor soils, with distinctive short and variable serotiny. Key morphological differences among the include variation in mature height, with latifolia producing the tallest individuals up to 50 m; prevalence of serotiny, most pronounced in latifolia for fire adaptation; needle length, shortest in contorta and bolanderi; and cone size and symmetry, with latifolia cones being more asymmetric and recurved. Genetic studies indicate clinal variation across populations, supporting the distinctions while suggesting gradual transitions rather than sharp boundaries. Hybridization is rare in nature but has been documented between latifolia and murrayana in zones of , facilitated by the lack of strong genetic barriers among geographical races. The species as a whole is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN, reflecting its wide distribution and abundance, though bolanderi is considered vulnerable due to its limited range and few occurrences on specialized habitats. Recent taxonomic updates, informed by molecular evidence from post-2010 studies, affirm the validity of the four subspecies based on genetic divergence and adaptive traits but question the rank of certain varieties, such as bolanderi, proposing it as an ecotype rather than a full subspecies in some classifications.

Distribution and habitat

Native range

Pinus contorta is native to western North America, extending from the Yukon Territory in Canada southward to Baja California in Mexico, and eastward to the Black Hills of South Dakota and northern New Mexico. This broad distribution spans diverse physiographic regions, including coastal lowlands and high-elevation montane zones. In coastal areas of the , it occupies sites from to approximately 600 m elevation, while interior populations in the thrive between 900 m and 3,400 m. The species endures a wide , from cold continental conditions with severe winters to mild maritime influences, and demonstrates tolerance for poor, rocky soils, periodic drought, and frost. Pinus contorta frequently dominates pure stands within extensive lodgepole pine forests, which cover millions of hectares across its range, comprising a major component of western conifer ecosystems. Following the , populations expanded through post-glacial migration from refugia in the , , and possibly , recolonizing higher latitudes and elevations as ice retreated.

Introduced ranges

Pinus contorta was introduced to in the mid-19th century, with the first recorded planting occurring in 1852. Initial trial plantations were established in , the , and other regions between the 1880s and 1920s primarily for timber production due to its rapid growth and suitability for poor soils compared to native species like Pinus sylvestris. Today, it is widely cultivated in plantations across , including and , where it supports commercial forestry on sites with challenging conditions such as acidic or nutrient-poor soils. In , P. contorta was introduced around 1880 for commercial forestry and purposes. By the mid-, planted areas exceeded 10,000 hectares, and it has since become one of the most extensively established exotic pines, with wilding populations impacting approximately 100,000 hectares of diverse landscapes including grasslands and shrublands as of 2001. The total area affected by wilding conifers in has since expanded to over 1.8 million hectares as of 2023. As of 2025, ongoing control efforts under 's National Wilding Conifer Control Programme have treated over 1.2 million hectares since 2015 to curb spread. In , particularly , introductions occurred in the early for production and , though establishment remains more limited compared to , confined largely to plantation settings. In , P. contorta was planted in starting in the 1970s initially for erosion control in fire- and grazing-degraded areas of , later expanding to commercial . In , introductions began in the 1960s for timber production in cold, steppe-like environments, with plantations established in to support the . These efforts have led to natural regeneration near planting sites, though spread is constrained by local climate extremes. While P. contorta has naturalized in some introduced regions, particularly in where escapes from plantations are common, its establishment outside controlled settings is generally limited by pathogens and pests such as pine weevils and voles, which cause significant mortality in and . Recent climate modeling studies indicate potential for expanded distribution in under warming scenarios, with increased suitability in northern forests due to shifting and patterns, potentially enhancing invasion risks over the next 50–100 years.

Ecology

Life cycle and growth

The life cycle of Pinus contorta begins with seed , which requires exposure to mineral soil for optimal success, typically following disturbances that remove and organic layers. Fresh seeds generally do not need stratification and can germinate readily in spring or early summer after , with emergence occurring in 10 to 20 days under temperatures between 8 and 26°C. rates can reach 65 to 90% in conditions on exposed mineral soil, though moderate shading reduces viability by up to 20%. During the seedling stage, exhibits slow initial growth, averaging 1 to 2 cm per year in height, and is highly shade-intolerant, favoring full for establishment. Seedlings thrive in open conditions but face high mortality from , , and competition; under favorable sites, they reach approximately 0.3 to 1 m in height within 5 years. This phase emphasizes survival in pioneer environments, with moderate cover (33 to 66%) sometimes aiding establishment by providing partial protection without excessive competition. Transitioning to the juvenile and mature phases, P. contorta experiences more rapid growth of 0.3 to 1 m per year, depending on site quality and elevation, continuing vigorously for 50 to 100 years until reaching 20 to 25 m in on good sites. Timber ages are typically 60 to 120 years, at which point s achieve commercial diameters of 20 to 40 cm. Growth phases often involve periods of suppression in dense conditions, where height increment slows dramatically, followed by release and accelerated growth upon canopy gaps or that increases light availability. Individual longevity for P. contorta generally spans 150 to 300 years, though trees in protected or subalpine settings can exceed 400 years. is characterized by declining vigor, including reduced height growth and cone production, often after 200 years in even-aged stands. Maximum recorded ages approach 400 years, with rare instances up to 500 years in undisturbed habitats.

Fire adaptation and serotiny

Pinus contorta, particularly the interior subspecies P. c. subsp. latifolia, exhibits a high degree of cone serotiny as a key fire adaptation, with variable serotiny levels ranging from 5 to 75% of cones in many populations remaining closed until exposed to heat. These serotinous cones are sealed by resinous bonds that prevent seed release under normal conditions, accumulating a substantial canopy seed bank over the tree's lifespan. The cones open when heated to temperatures between 45°C and 60°C, typically during crown fires, allowing synchronized seed dispersal onto mineral soil exposed by the fire. This mechanism ensures rapid post-fire colonization, with seedling densities forming dense even-aged cohorts from the released seeds. The accumulated in mature stands can reach up to 300,000 viable per , enabling high regeneration potential following stand-replacing . In lodgepole pine forests dominated by P. c. subsp. latifolia, this trait is adapted to return intervals of 100-300 years, where infrequent but severe allow seed buildup without depletion. However, too-frequent —intervals shorter than the time needed for cone production (typically 20-30 years)—can exhaust the , leading to regeneration failure. In contrast, coastal populations of P. c. subsp. contorta are predominantly non-serotinous, with cones opening annually to release seeds without cues, reflecting to less fire-prone, wetter environments. These populations rely on ongoing seedfall for establishment rather than episodic post- release. Under , altered regimes pose risks to serotinous populations; studies from 2015-2024 indicate that increasing and post- can reduce regeneration success, potentially selecting against high serotiny in some areas. As of 2025, studies suggest assisted migration of provenances may mitigate height growth reductions under , enhancing resilience in altered regimes. For instance, shorter intervals may deplete seed banks before replenishment, while warmer, drier conditions hinder seedling survival, widening the regeneration gap in -adapted stands.

Symbiotic relationships

Pinus contorta forms ectomycorrhizal associations predominantly with fungi in the genera and , which enhance nutrient uptake, particularly and , in nutrient-poor and acidic soils common to its habitats. These mutualistic relationships improve establishment and growth by extending the root system's absorptive capacity beyond the host's fine roots, allowing access to otherwise unavailable soil resources. Such associations are critical in early successional environments where is low, contributing to the species' in disturbed sites. Pollination in P. contorta is primarily anemophilous, with wind serving as the main vector for dispersal from male cones to female ovules, and no reliance on pollinators. While some may incidentally contact during foraging, they do not function as significant vectors, and the exhibits typical coniferous wind-pollination adaptations, including abundant lightweight production. Seeds of P. contorta serve as a food source for various , including squirrels such as the (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), which act as primary predators, and birds that consume them opportunistically. Although is predominantly by wind due to the small, winged seeds, some secondary dispersal occurs through caching behavior by and limited bird activity, though P. contorta lacks the large, wingless seeds preferred by specialized dispersers like Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana). Foliage and bark are browsed by ungulates such as (Odocoileus hemionus) and (Alces alces), particularly during winter when other forage is scarce, while porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) and small target the bark and inner wood. Among pathogens, P. contorta is susceptible to root rot caused by Armillaria species, which infect roots and lower stems, leading to reduced growth, wilting, and mortality in infected trees, especially in dense stands or stressed conditions. The parasitic plant dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium americanum) also targets P. contorta, particularly in mature, crowded forests, where it penetrates host tissues via haustoria to extract water and nutrients, inducing witches' brooms, deformed growth, and weakened vigor that predisposes trees to secondary pests. In ecosystems, P. contorta dominates early seral stages following disturbances like , rapidly colonizing open sites to stabilize soils and facilitate succession toward more diverse forests. Its stands provide essential , , and cover for over 80 species of birds and mammals, including cavity-nesting birds like woodpeckers and small mammals such as snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), supporting in montane and subalpine communities.

Threats and conservation

Environmental threats

One of the most significant environmental threats to Pinus contorta, particularly its lodgepole pine variety, is the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae), which causes widespread epidemics that kill large proportions of mature trees. In , these outbreaks peaked in the 2000s to early 2010s, affecting approximately 18 million hectares of lodgepole pine forests and resulting in mortality rates of up to 86% in heavily infested stands. The epidemics, driven by warmer temperatures allowing extended beetle generations, have largely subsided as of 2025 due to depleted mature hosts and colder winters, though continue to cause ongoing tree mortality and altered forest structures, exacerbating vulnerability to secondary stressors. Lodgepole dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium americanum) is another major parasitic threat, especially to interior varieties in the , infecting up to 60-80% of trees in heavily impacted stands. It causes witches' brooms, reduced growth, stem deformation, and increased susceptibility to insects and diseases, contributing to long-term stand decline. Fungal diseases also pose a notable risk, with white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola), an introduced pathogen from , infecting P. contorta and causing branch cankers, growth reduction, and eventual mortality. Infection rates in lodgepole pine stands are generally low, typically 1-5% overall, though up to 10-20% occur in some susceptible stands and regions. The disease spreads via spores from alternate hosts like Ribes species, compounding damage in dense, post-disturbance regenerations where P. contorta is prevalent. Climate change intensifies abiotic stresses on P. contorta, with prolonged droughts increasing mortality through reduced water availability and heightened susceptibility to pests. Lodgepole pine mortality surged by 700% from 2000 to 2013 in parts of its range, largely attributable to drought-induced weakening combined with outbreaks. Models project northward range shifts of 250-600 km by 2100 under moderate emissions scenarios, as southern populations face unsuitable warmer, drier conditions while northern areas become more hospitable, potentially leading to local extirpations without migration. Extreme weather events further threaten P. contorta, especially in coastal variants like shore pine, where ice storms and high winds cause mechanical damage such as branch breakage and uprooting. In Oregon's coastal zones, ice accumulation and storm winds frequently lead to limb failure and in exposed stands, reducing canopy integrity and increasing risk on slopes. These events are more severe in mature, dense forests with shallow roots, highlighting the ' vulnerability in maritime climates. Soil degradation through represents another key threat, particularly following disturbances that expose systems in P. contorta's fire-prone habitats. Post-logging activities in burned areas can exacerbate and loss by up to several magnitudes compared to natural post-fire recovery, leading to exposure and reduced stability. While some occurs naturally after wildfires in these ecosystems, accelerated degradation from human interventions disrupts nutrient cycling and regeneration potential.

Invasive potential

Pinus contorta exhibits significant invasive potential in several introduced regions outside its native North American range, primarily due to its rapid spread and ability to alter local ecosystems. In , where it was introduced for forestry in the early , P. contorta has become one of the most problematic wilding , invading native grasslands and shrublands, particularly in the South Island's high country. This displaces indigenous , reduces native , and promotes a shift toward conifer-dominated landscapes, thereby diminishing and altering nutrient dynamics. Wilding conifers, with P. contorta as a dominant species, now cover over 1.8 million hectares across New Zealand, representing a substantial to conservation lands. In , particularly in the and south-central regions, P. contorta competes aggressively with native forests, outcompeting seedlings through shading and resource depletion. Its fire-adapted traits, including serotinous cones that release seeds post-fire, facilitate rapid colonization of burned areas, exacerbating in fire-prone ecosystems like those dominated by and Nothofagus antarctica. This has led to changes in fuel loads and fire regimes, increasing intensity and frequency, while P. contorta is recognized as invasive in Patagonian protected areas, prompting regulatory concerns. In , P. contorta shows limited invasiveness overall, constrained by native pathogens such as pine rusts and needle casts that reduce its vigor and spread. However, recent assessments highlight emerging risks in the , where warmer climates may favor its establishment and expansion into Mediterranean ecosystems, potentially threatening biodiversity in fire-adapted habitats. A 2023 modeling study on alien tree range shifts under indicates that while many like P. contorta may face niche contraction in , southern regions including Iberia could see increased invasion potential. The invasive success of P. contorta stems from several key mechanisms. It produces prolific quantities of wind-dispersed , with mature trees capable of releasing millions annually, enabling long-distance . Additionally, its promotion of through accumulation of flammable and fuels creates a positive feedback loop, as post-fire conditions favor its regeneration over less resilient natives. While P. contorta itself does not fix nitrogen, its associations with ectomycorrhizal fungi and soil microbes enhance nutrient availability, including cycling, giving it a competitive edge in nutrient-poor invaded s. Management of P. contorta invasions focuses on prevention, mechanical removal, and emerging biocontrol strategies. In sensitive habitats like 's high-country tussock grasslands, eradication efforts involve aerial application and manual felling to halt spread, with ongoing national programs targeting wilding conifers to protect over 1.8 million hectares. Biocontrol trials, particularly in , explore host-specific insects targeting reproductive structures, such as seed and cone weevils from , to reduce seed production without broad ecological impacts; however, risks to non-target pines necessitate cautious implementation.

Conservation efforts

The global conservation status of Pinus contorta is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN, based on a evaluation that found the species to be widespread and abundant across its native range, though local declines have been noted in some areas due to ongoing threats like insect outbreaks. No comprehensive reassessment has occurred by 2025, but regional monitoring highlights vulnerabilities in specific subspecies and habitats. Significant portions of the species' native range are encompassed within protected areas, including national parks such as in the United States, where lodgepole pine dominates mid-elevation forests, and in , which supports extensive stands in the . These designations help safeguard approximately 80% of Yellowstone's forested area and contribute to broader protection in the Canadian Rockies, preserving natural disturbance regimes essential for the species. Restoration efforts following major disturbances, such as outbreaks, emphasize salvage logging to remove dead timber while promoting regeneration through from serotinous cones. strategies are employed to ensure in replanting, delineating zones based on and to match local adaptations and enhance resilience to environmental changes. Additionally, management of fire regimes through prescribed burns and mechanical mimics historical patterns, facilitating cone serotiny and post-fire to maintain stand health. Genetic conservation targets rarer subspecies like P. contorta subsp. bolanderi, which is endemic to and ranked as a rare plant (1B.2) due to limited occurrences in specialized habitats. Seed banking initiatives store genetic material from these populations to support potential reintroduction, while ex situ collections in arboreta preserve living specimens for and . U.S. Forest Service guidelines promote sustainable harvesting practices, including rotation ages and even-aged management to balance timber yield with ecological integrity across lodgepole pine forests.

Human uses

Timber and commercial applications

Pinus contorta, commonly known as lodgepole pine, is a primary timber species valued for its straight grain, which makes it suitable for poles, posts, and mine timbers. The wood is also used for in applications such as framing, paneling, shelving, railroad ties, and particleboard production. Mature stands typically yield 150-400 m³/ha, depending on site conditions and practices. In , lodgepole pine serves as a major source for pulp and production, with its dense contributing to higher burst strength in compared to other like Scots pine. The bark is utilized in adhesives, including tannin-based and formulations derived from liquefied bark, enhancing its commercial value in . Annual harvest volumes in peaked at approximately 10 million m³ in the early 2020s, primarily from (about 9 million m³ in 2021) and western U.S. states affected by outbreaks, but declined to around 7 million m³ by 2023 due to depletion of infested stands. Despite its utility, challenges include the knotty nature of the wood, which limits its quality for high-grade and often restricts it to lower-value products like studs or paneling. Beetle-killed stands offer salvage opportunities but degrade rapidly, necessitating quick harvesting to maintain economic viability. Exports of lodgepole pine to for have been significant, supported by increasing adoption of sustainable certifications like FSC to meet international standards. Recent trends as of 2025 indicate continued decline in harvestable volumes, exacerbated by 2024 wildfires affecting 1.1 million hectares in , potentially shifting focus to residue utilization for biofuels and other value-added products.

Ornamental and ecological restoration

Pinus contorta is valued in ornamental for its adaptability to challenging sites, serving effectively as windbreaks and privacy screens due to its dense growth and tolerance of , salt spray, and poor soils. It thrives in seaside and coastal gardens, where it provides and visual screening when planted in groups. The species demonstrates hardiness varying by variety: var. latifolia across USDA zones 0-7 for interior climates, and var. contorta in zones 6-8 for coastal areas. Propagation of P. contorta typically involves seed sowing after cold stratification to mimic natural dormancy breaking, with seeds requiring 20-60 days at approximately 4°C to achieve high germination rates of up to 100% under optimal conditions. For producing clonal plants, softwood cuttings taken in late spring or summer can be rooted under mist, offering a method to preserve specific traits in selected individuals. In ecological restoration, P. contorta plays a key role in rehabilitating disturbed landscapes, particularly in mine reclamation projects where it is planted on acidic spoils treated with lime and organic amendments to facilitate natural succession and soil recovery. Following wildfires, applications of wood mulch from forest residues enhance seedling establishment and provide long-term soil protection against erosion, accelerating regeneration in lodgepole pine ecosystems. Planted stands contribute to soil stability by improving structure and nutrient dynamics, with noticeable enhancements in site stability emerging within 5-10 years as root systems develop and organic matter accumulates. Notable cultivars enhance ornamental appeal; 'Chief Joseph', a compact form of P. contorta var. latifolia, features striking yellow foliage in winter that contrasts with green summer growth, making it suitable for rock gardens, collections, and mixed borders in zones 3-8. 'Taylor's Sunburst' displays vivid golden-yellow new growth in spring that matures to green, adding seasonal color to landscapes while maintaining an upright, pyramidal habit ideal for specimen planting. Cultivation challenges include heightened susceptibility to western gall rust (Endocronartium harknessii) in non-native or stressed soils, where infections cause branch and can lead to significant mortality if not managed through or resistant stock selection. For effective windbreaks or screens, recommended planting spacing is 2-3 meters between trees to allow for dense coverage without overcrowding, promoting healthy airflow and reducing disease pressure.

Traditional and cultural significance

of have long utilized Pinus contorta, commonly known as lodgepole pine, in traditional practices, particularly for structural and sustenance purposes. The straight, slender trunks of the tree were harvested by tribes such as the Blackfoot (Niitsitapi) for constructing tipis and lodges, earning the species its common name "lodgepole pine." The Salish and Kootenai peoples also employed the branches and needles for baskets and other items, while the inner bark served as an emergency food source during famines, providing essential calories and nutrients when other resources were scarce. The tree's various parts contributed to indigenous diets and oral traditions. Seeds from the cones were collected, roasted, and eaten as a nut-like food by several First Nations groups in the and Interior regions, offering a protein-rich . The pitch, or resin, was chewed as a for its freshening properties and adhesive qualities, a practice documented among the Kainai (Blood) tribe. Additionally, the layer was peeled and consumed raw or processed into cakes, while infusions made from the needles or new branch tips provided a rich in (approximately 100-200 mg per 100 g of needles), helping to prevent during long winters or travels. Medicinally, P. contorta held significant value in traditional healing. The resin was applied as a to wounds and sores for its properties by Coast Salish, , and other coastal tribes, aiding in infection prevention and skin healing. Needle-based teas were similarly used to treat respiratory ailments and nutritional deficiencies, leveraging the tree's high ascorbic acid content. In cultural contexts, the lodgepole pine symbolizes resilience and adaptability in indigenous art and storytelling, reflecting its role in seasonal migrations and survival narratives. Historical records from the in 1805 describe encounters with P. contorta along the , noting its prevalence in the landscape, though specific uses were not detailed in their journals at the time. Modern ethnobotanical studies since 2000 have documented over 20 traditional applications, including food, medicine, and material uses, underscoring the tree's enduring cultural importance among indigenous communities.

References

  1. https://conifers.org/pi/Pinus_contorta.php
  2. https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654/volume_1/pinus/contorta.htm
  3. https://tidcf.nrcan.gc.ca/en/trees/factsheet/140
  4. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/industry/forestry/managing-our-forest-resources/silviculture/tree-species-selection/tree-species-compendium-index/lodgepole-pine
  5. https://conifersociety.org/conifers/pinus-contorta
  6. https://www.wood-database.com/lodgepole-pine/
  7. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/62798
  8. https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/documnts/fplrp/fplrp102.pdf
  9. https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/pinus-contorta-var-contorta
  10. https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_series/rmrs/gtr/rmrs_gtr414.pdf
  11. https://extension.usu.edu/forestry/tree-identification/pines/lodgepole-pine
  12. https://www.fs.usda.gov/pnw/publications/pnw_gtr008.shtml
  13. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pinconl/all.html
  14. https://fieldguide.mt.gov/speciesDetail.aspx?elcode=%2520PGPIN04080
  15. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pinconc/all.html
  16. https://conifers.org/pi/Pinus_contorta_murrayana.php
  17. https://www.fpl.fs.usda.gov/documnts/TechSheets/SoftwoodNA/htmlDocs/pinuscontorta.html
  18. https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/pinus-contorta/
  19. https://genomics.sites.olt.ubc.ca/files/2021/02/combined_quickfacts.pdf
  20. https://www.facebook.com/MaplewoodFlats/posts/lodgepole-pine-spotlight-meet-the-lodgepole-pine-also-known-as-pinus-contorta-va/623631533257542/
  21. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pinconm/all.html
  22. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22837407/
  23. https://conifersgarden.com/encyclopedia/pinus/pinus-contorta
  24. https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.128449/Pinus_contorta_var_bolanderi
  25. https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3732/ajb.1000378
  26. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4375868/
  27. https://jfs.agriculturejournals.cz/pdfs/jfs/2022/09/01.pdf
  28. https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.41577
  29. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00468-025-02657-3
  30. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112700004886
  31. https://www.doc.govt.nz/nature/pests-and-threats/weeds/common-weeds/wilding-conifers/
  32. https://www.mpi.govt.nz/biosecurity/exotic-pests-and-diseases-in-new-zealand/long-term-biosecurity-management-programmes/wilding-conifers
  33. http://www2.udec.cl/~pauchard/langdon-etal-2010.pdf
  34. https://research.fs.usda.gov/silvics/lodgepole-pine
  35. https://www.conifers.org/pi/Pinus_contorta_latifolia.php
  36. https://talltimbers.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/267-Lotan1974_op.pdf
  37. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112707000060
  38. https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/63/11/866/2389884
  39. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1902841116
  40. http://nativeplantspnw.com/shore-pine-pinus-contorta/
  41. https://nwcasc.uw.edu/2023/02/28/how-will-northwest-serotinous-forests-cope-under-climate-change/
  42. https://annforsci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13595-025-01275-w
  43. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.4765
  44. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC93341/
  45. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10891885/
  46. https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/x98-203
  47. https://www.fs.usda.gov/wildflowers/plant-of-the-week/arceuthobium_americanum.shtml
  48. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/air-land-water/water/water-science-data/effects-overstory-mortality
  49. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112709006069
  50. https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfp/mountain_pine_beetle/Current.htm
  51. https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/woody/arcame/all.html
  52. https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr428.pdf
  53. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/forests-and-global-change/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2023.1149456/full
  54. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/chapter-2/
  55. https://www.ccfm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Vulnerability-of-Canada%25E2%2580%2599s-tree-species-to-climate-change-and-management-options-for-adaptation-Full-Report.pdf
  56. https://extension.oregonstate.edu/sites/extd8/files/documents/em9008.pdf
  57. https://www.sierraforestlegacy.org/Resources/Conservation/FireForestEcology/SalvageLoggingScience/Salvage-McIver00.pdf
  58. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825221001112
  59. https://www.mdpi.com/1424-2818/15/3/320
  60. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260436799_Effect_of_Pinus_contorta_invasion_on_forest_fuel_properties_and_its_potential_implications_on_the_fire_regime_of_Araucaria_araucana_and_Nothofagus_antarctica_forests
  61. https://annforsci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13595-023-01202-x
  62. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168192323003416
  63. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ecy.1673
  64. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4240229/
  65. https://nzpps.org/_journal/index.php/pnzppc/article/download/11656/11506/13133
  66. https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/forests.htm
  67. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2307/2937244
  68. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237420961_Restoration_of_forests_attacked_by_mountain_pine_beetle_Misnomer_misdirected_or_must-do
  69. https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.18223
  70. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112723004693
  71. https://www.calflora.org/app/taxon?crn=6509
  72. https://bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu/resources/comparison-of-the-properties-of-wood-and-pulp-fibers-from-lodgepole-pine-pinus-contorta-and-scots-pine-pinus-sylvestris/
  73. https://bioresources.cnr.ncsu.edu/resources/properties-of-pine-bark-tannin-based-adhesive-produced-with-various-hardeners/
  74. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/forestry/forest-industry-economics/economic-state/2021_bc_forest_sector_-_statistics_summary.pdf
  75. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/forestry/forest-industry-economics/economic-state/2023_economic_state_of_the_bc_forest_sector.pdf
  76. https://www.fs.usda.gov/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr157.pdf
  77. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/forestry/stewardship/forest-analysis-inventory/impacts_2024_fires.pdf
  78. https://landscapeplants.oregonstate.edu/plants/pinus-contorta-var-latifolia
  79. https://www.picturethisai.com/care/propagate/Pinus_contorta.html
  80. https://oregonflora.org/taxa/garden.php?taxon=7301
  81. https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs/rmrs_rp041.pdf
  82. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112719312691
  83. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5340941/
  84. https://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=439430
  85. https://iselinursery.com/colorful-conifers/pinus-pine/pinus-contorta-taylors-sunburst/
  86. https://tidcf.nrcan.gc.ca/en/diseases/factsheet/25
  87. https://extension.umn.edu/agroforestry/trees-shrubs-windbreaks
  88. http://naeb.brit.org/uses/search/?string=Pinus%2Bcontorta
  89. https://galileo.org/kainai/lodgepole-pine/
  90. https://arboretumfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/alexander_edible-conifers.pdf
  91. https://dspace.library.uvic.ca/bitstream/handle/1828/3248/Dilbone_Megan_MSc_2011.pdf.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  92. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/6b87a644-19ec-461b-90d1-b4e955f8d8c4/content/AI215E06.htm
  93. https://www.wildedible.com/pine-needle-tea-natural-vitamin-c
  94. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23445392/
  95. https://www.wnps.org/native-plant-directory/192:pinus-contorta
  96. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1074&context=anth_fac
  97. https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1805-11-13
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.