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Al-Zaytuna Mosque
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Al-Zaytuna Mosque
Al-Zaytuna Mosque (Arabic: جامع الزيتونة, romanized: Jāmiʿ al-Zaytūnah, lit. 'Mosque of the olive') is a major mosque at the center of the historic medina of Tunis, Tunisia. The mosque is the oldest in the city. It was founded at the end of the 7th century or in the early 8th century, but its current architectural form dates from a reconstruction in the 9th century, including many antique columns reused from Carthage, and from later additions and restorations over the centuries.
The mosque developed into a place of higher education, today the University of Ez-Zitouna, which became the most important educational institution in Tunisia from around the 13th century onward. Ibn 'Arafa, a major Maliki scholar, al-Maziri, the great traditionalist and jurist, and Aboul-Qacem Echebbi, a famous Tunisian poet, all taught there, among others.
One legend states that it was called "Mosque of Olive" because it was built on an ancient place of worship where there was an olive.[citation needed] Another account, transmitted by the 17th century Tunisian historian Ibn Abi Dinar, reports the presence of a Byzantine Christian church dedicated to Santa Olivia at that location. Archeological investigations and restoration works in 1969–1970 have shown that the mosque was built over an existing Byzantine-era building with columns, covering a cemetery. This may have been a Christian basilica, which provides support for the legend reported by Ibn Abi Dinar. A more recent interpretation by Muhammad al-Badji Ibn Mami suggests that the previous structures may have been part of a Byzantine fortification, inside which the Arab conquerors built their mosque. This hypothesis is also supported by Sihem Lamine.
The saint is particularly venerated in Tunisia because it is superstitiously thought that if the site and its memory are profaned then a misfortune will happen; this includes a belief that when her relics are recovered Islam will end. This ancillary legend related to the discovery of the saint's relics is widespread in Sicily, however it is connected to other Saints as well. In 1402 king Martin I of Sicily requested the return of Saint Olivia's relics from the Berber Caliph of Ifriqiya Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II, who refused him. Even today the Tunisians, who still venerate her, believe that the dominion of their religion will fade when the body of the Virgin Olivia will disappear.
Al-Zaytuna was the second mosque to be built in Ifriqiya and the Maghreb region after the Mosque of Uqba in Kairouan. The exact date of building varies according to different sources and interpretations. The 11th-century writer Al-Bakri wrote that Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab, the Umayyad governor of Ifriqiya, built a Friday mosque (jāmīʿ) in Tunis in 114 AH (732/733 CE). Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) also repeats this account. However, al-Bakri also mentions a mosque (masjid) being built by Hasan ibn al-Nu'man, who led the conquest of Carthage, in 79 AH (698/699 CE).
Modern historians have been divided over the exact date of construction and on whether it should be attributed to Ibn al-Habhab or to Ibn al-Nu'man. Most scholars support the second explanation and attribute the foundation to Ibn al-Nu'man in 698 CE. Under this explanation, it is assumed that Ibn al-Habhab subsequently rebuilt it, expanded it, or completed its construction. One supporting argument is that it is unlikely the city of Tunis remained a long time without a mosque after its conquest in 79 AH (698/699 CE). Ahmed ibn Abu Diyaf, a 19th-century Tunisian historian, attributes the foundation to Hasan ibn al-Nu'man in 84 AH (703/704 CE). Lucien Golvin, a 20th-century French scholar, argued that Ibn al-Habhab was the founder but that the construction took place in 116 AH (734/735 CE).
The mosque owes its current overall form to a reconstruction under the Aghlabids, the dynasty that ruled Ifriqiya on behalf of the Abbasid caliphs in the 9th century. The work was begun during the reign of emir Abu Ibrahim Ahmad and completed in 864–865. As a result, the mosque's layout is also very similar to the Mosque of Uqba in Kairouan, which was also rebuilt by the Aghlabids earlier in the same century. A contemporary inscription at the base of the dome in front of the mihrab gives the date of this construction and names three individuals: 1) the Abbasid caliph al-Musta'in Billah, identified as the main patron; 2) Nusayr, a mawla of the caliph and probably the overseer of the works; and 3) Fathallah or Fath al-Banna', the architect and chief builder. Another inscription, along one of the mosque's courtyard façades, provides the same information. The Aghlabid emir himself (Abu Ibrahim Ahmad) is not mentioned in these inscriptions, suggesting that he may not have been officially involved in the construction and that Nusayr was directing the works directly on behalf of the Abbasid caliph instead.
The Aghlabid structure, in turn, is mostly obscured today by later additions and reconstructions. The sections that are best preserved from the 9th century are the interior of the prayer hall (though some of this was later rebuilt too) and the projecting round corner bastions at the northern and eastern corners of the mosque. There is no evidence that a minaret was attached to the mosque at this time. The reasons for this omission are unclear. It suggests that minarets were not yet a standard feature of congregational mosques or that they were still considered a controversial innovation at the time.
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Al-Zaytuna Mosque
Al-Zaytuna Mosque (Arabic: جامع الزيتونة, romanized: Jāmiʿ al-Zaytūnah, lit. 'Mosque of the olive') is a major mosque at the center of the historic medina of Tunis, Tunisia. The mosque is the oldest in the city. It was founded at the end of the 7th century or in the early 8th century, but its current architectural form dates from a reconstruction in the 9th century, including many antique columns reused from Carthage, and from later additions and restorations over the centuries.
The mosque developed into a place of higher education, today the University of Ez-Zitouna, which became the most important educational institution in Tunisia from around the 13th century onward. Ibn 'Arafa, a major Maliki scholar, al-Maziri, the great traditionalist and jurist, and Aboul-Qacem Echebbi, a famous Tunisian poet, all taught there, among others.
One legend states that it was called "Mosque of Olive" because it was built on an ancient place of worship where there was an olive.[citation needed] Another account, transmitted by the 17th century Tunisian historian Ibn Abi Dinar, reports the presence of a Byzantine Christian church dedicated to Santa Olivia at that location. Archeological investigations and restoration works in 1969–1970 have shown that the mosque was built over an existing Byzantine-era building with columns, covering a cemetery. This may have been a Christian basilica, which provides support for the legend reported by Ibn Abi Dinar. A more recent interpretation by Muhammad al-Badji Ibn Mami suggests that the previous structures may have been part of a Byzantine fortification, inside which the Arab conquerors built their mosque. This hypothesis is also supported by Sihem Lamine.
The saint is particularly venerated in Tunisia because it is superstitiously thought that if the site and its memory are profaned then a misfortune will happen; this includes a belief that when her relics are recovered Islam will end. This ancillary legend related to the discovery of the saint's relics is widespread in Sicily, however it is connected to other Saints as well. In 1402 king Martin I of Sicily requested the return of Saint Olivia's relics from the Berber Caliph of Ifriqiya Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II, who refused him. Even today the Tunisians, who still venerate her, believe that the dominion of their religion will fade when the body of the Virgin Olivia will disappear.
Al-Zaytuna was the second mosque to be built in Ifriqiya and the Maghreb region after the Mosque of Uqba in Kairouan. The exact date of building varies according to different sources and interpretations. The 11th-century writer Al-Bakri wrote that Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab, the Umayyad governor of Ifriqiya, built a Friday mosque (jāmīʿ) in Tunis in 114 AH (732/733 CE). Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) also repeats this account. However, al-Bakri also mentions a mosque (masjid) being built by Hasan ibn al-Nu'man, who led the conquest of Carthage, in 79 AH (698/699 CE).
Modern historians have been divided over the exact date of construction and on whether it should be attributed to Ibn al-Habhab or to Ibn al-Nu'man. Most scholars support the second explanation and attribute the foundation to Ibn al-Nu'man in 698 CE. Under this explanation, it is assumed that Ibn al-Habhab subsequently rebuilt it, expanded it, or completed its construction. One supporting argument is that it is unlikely the city of Tunis remained a long time without a mosque after its conquest in 79 AH (698/699 CE). Ahmed ibn Abu Diyaf, a 19th-century Tunisian historian, attributes the foundation to Hasan ibn al-Nu'man in 84 AH (703/704 CE). Lucien Golvin, a 20th-century French scholar, argued that Ibn al-Habhab was the founder but that the construction took place in 116 AH (734/735 CE).
The mosque owes its current overall form to a reconstruction under the Aghlabids, the dynasty that ruled Ifriqiya on behalf of the Abbasid caliphs in the 9th century. The work was begun during the reign of emir Abu Ibrahim Ahmad and completed in 864–865. As a result, the mosque's layout is also very similar to the Mosque of Uqba in Kairouan, which was also rebuilt by the Aghlabids earlier in the same century. A contemporary inscription at the base of the dome in front of the mihrab gives the date of this construction and names three individuals: 1) the Abbasid caliph al-Musta'in Billah, identified as the main patron; 2) Nusayr, a mawla of the caliph and probably the overseer of the works; and 3) Fathallah or Fath al-Banna', the architect and chief builder. Another inscription, along one of the mosque's courtyard façades, provides the same information. The Aghlabid emir himself (Abu Ibrahim Ahmad) is not mentioned in these inscriptions, suggesting that he may not have been officially involved in the construction and that Nusayr was directing the works directly on behalf of the Abbasid caliph instead.
The Aghlabid structure, in turn, is mostly obscured today by later additions and reconstructions. The sections that are best preserved from the 9th century are the interior of the prayer hall (though some of this was later rebuilt too) and the projecting round corner bastions at the northern and eastern corners of the mosque. There is no evidence that a minaret was attached to the mosque at this time. The reasons for this omission are unclear. It suggests that minarets were not yet a standard feature of congregational mosques or that they were still considered a controversial innovation at the time.
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