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1994 Japanese electoral reform
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1994 Japanese electoral reform
The 1994 electoral reform in Japan was a change from the previous single non-transferable vote (SNTV) system of multi-member districts (MMD) to a mixed electoral system of single-member districts (SMD) with plurality voting and a party list system with proportional representation. The reform had three main objectives: change the one-party dominance of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) from the previous 1955 system to a two-party system with alternation in power, reduce the cost of elections and campaigns, and change campaign focus from individual-centered to party-centered.
The 1955 system saw the emergence of two main parties, the LDP and the Japanese Socialist Party (JSP). The LDP was created in November 1955 by the combination of two conservative parties, Japan Democratic Party and Liberal Party. This, plus the reformation of the JSP, created a "one and a half party system", as oftentimes the LDP had twice as many seats as the opposition within the legislature. Following this, the LDP remained in power for the next 38 years until 1993. The LDP was made up of many powerful factions within the party which acted as "parties within a party". These factions generally conducted deals with each other behind closed doors to choose the next prime minister, and in return, the prime minister made sure to allocate Cabinet positions across all factions. These factions played a major role in influencing the LDP's policies and agendas.
Although the previous system began as a "one and a half party system", over time, the opposition splintered. Meanwhile, the LDP came to dominate the government by winning reelection after reelection through a pragmatic approach to gain voters. The party also used their incumbency to create strong connections with the bureaucracy and with businesses. This relationship was called the Iron Triangle and helped the LDP maintain their power and influence. An example of this, called amakudari, is when the LDP would give high-ranking, high-paying corporation jobs to retired bureaucrats in return for government approval for projects (such as public works) that employed companies (such as construction) that supported the LDP. This concept was most apparent during Tanaka Kakuei's time as prime minister in the 1970s.
However, as globalization increased, the isolationist party was forced to open up to foreign companies and investment. Increased affluence in the citizens and urbanization also impacted the rural-based LDP's power. With urbanization also came liberalization, and citizens' interests and the media started to diversify. In addition, the changing demographics to an aging society forced the LDP to start new welfare programs, and introduced the 3% sales tax in 1989 to increase funding, much to the dismay of the voters. The economic bubble also collapsed in 1991, bringing a shock to the legitimacy of the LDP. Money politics, including business deals between companies and the party, along with pork barrel spending and patronage systems led to finance scandals and corruption, as mentioned below.
Due to several economic changes in the later half of the 20th century, LDP members grew increasingly wealthy. Especially in the 1970s and 1980s, many used their position of power to take advantage of opportunities in real estate and the stock market. As this happened, the number of scandals and corruption increased. Consequently, confidence in the LDP decreased as money scandals continued to plague the Diet.
Another major characteristic of Japanese politics prior to reformation was pork barrel politics: spending from the national budget on a certain district in return for votes and other supporting contributions. One important factor within pork barrel politics is the concept of the koenkai. This is a group of a politician's followers and serves as a middle ground for providing voter and financial support to politicians and granting favors to constituents. The stronger the politician's influence and power, the stronger his or her koenkai will be. If the politician can engage in pork barrel politics and provide national spending on local projects, the more influence and power the politician can gain in his/her constituency.
Many money-related scandals occurred between LDP politicians and businesses during the 1955 system. Some businesses with close relationships with the LDP thrived because of favors granted to them via state intervention. Some ways this happened was through tax breaks, grants, or permits that eliminated other business competition. Listed below is an example of a scandal that occurred during the Tanaka Cabinet.
The Tanaka Kakuei I Cabinet lasted from April 26, 1972, to January 24, 1974.
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1994 Japanese electoral reform
The 1994 electoral reform in Japan was a change from the previous single non-transferable vote (SNTV) system of multi-member districts (MMD) to a mixed electoral system of single-member districts (SMD) with plurality voting and a party list system with proportional representation. The reform had three main objectives: change the one-party dominance of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) from the previous 1955 system to a two-party system with alternation in power, reduce the cost of elections and campaigns, and change campaign focus from individual-centered to party-centered.
The 1955 system saw the emergence of two main parties, the LDP and the Japanese Socialist Party (JSP). The LDP was created in November 1955 by the combination of two conservative parties, Japan Democratic Party and Liberal Party. This, plus the reformation of the JSP, created a "one and a half party system", as oftentimes the LDP had twice as many seats as the opposition within the legislature. Following this, the LDP remained in power for the next 38 years until 1993. The LDP was made up of many powerful factions within the party which acted as "parties within a party". These factions generally conducted deals with each other behind closed doors to choose the next prime minister, and in return, the prime minister made sure to allocate Cabinet positions across all factions. These factions played a major role in influencing the LDP's policies and agendas.
Although the previous system began as a "one and a half party system", over time, the opposition splintered. Meanwhile, the LDP came to dominate the government by winning reelection after reelection through a pragmatic approach to gain voters. The party also used their incumbency to create strong connections with the bureaucracy and with businesses. This relationship was called the Iron Triangle and helped the LDP maintain their power and influence. An example of this, called amakudari, is when the LDP would give high-ranking, high-paying corporation jobs to retired bureaucrats in return for government approval for projects (such as public works) that employed companies (such as construction) that supported the LDP. This concept was most apparent during Tanaka Kakuei's time as prime minister in the 1970s.
However, as globalization increased, the isolationist party was forced to open up to foreign companies and investment. Increased affluence in the citizens and urbanization also impacted the rural-based LDP's power. With urbanization also came liberalization, and citizens' interests and the media started to diversify. In addition, the changing demographics to an aging society forced the LDP to start new welfare programs, and introduced the 3% sales tax in 1989 to increase funding, much to the dismay of the voters. The economic bubble also collapsed in 1991, bringing a shock to the legitimacy of the LDP. Money politics, including business deals between companies and the party, along with pork barrel spending and patronage systems led to finance scandals and corruption, as mentioned below.
Due to several economic changes in the later half of the 20th century, LDP members grew increasingly wealthy. Especially in the 1970s and 1980s, many used their position of power to take advantage of opportunities in real estate and the stock market. As this happened, the number of scandals and corruption increased. Consequently, confidence in the LDP decreased as money scandals continued to plague the Diet.
Another major characteristic of Japanese politics prior to reformation was pork barrel politics: spending from the national budget on a certain district in return for votes and other supporting contributions. One important factor within pork barrel politics is the concept of the koenkai. This is a group of a politician's followers and serves as a middle ground for providing voter and financial support to politicians and granting favors to constituents. The stronger the politician's influence and power, the stronger his or her koenkai will be. If the politician can engage in pork barrel politics and provide national spending on local projects, the more influence and power the politician can gain in his/her constituency.
Many money-related scandals occurred between LDP politicians and businesses during the 1955 system. Some businesses with close relationships with the LDP thrived because of favors granted to them via state intervention. Some ways this happened was through tax breaks, grants, or permits that eliminated other business competition. Listed below is an example of a scandal that occurred during the Tanaka Cabinet.
The Tanaka Kakuei I Cabinet lasted from April 26, 1972, to January 24, 1974.