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Cactus Hill
Cactus Hill
Cactus Hill
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Cactus Hill is an archaeological site in southeastern Virginia, United States, located on sand dunes above the Nottoway River about 45 miles south of Richmond. The site receives its name from the prickly pear cacti that can be found growing abundantly on-site in the sandy soil. Cactus Hill may be one of the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas. If proven to have been inhabited 16,000 to 20,000 years ago, it would provide supporting evidence for pre-Clovis occupation of the Americas.[1] The site has yielded multiple levels of prehistoric inhabitance with two discrete levels of early Paleo-Indian activity.

Significance

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Main article: Settlement of the Americas

Many archaeologists, including Dennis Stanford and Joseph and Lynn McAvoy of Nottoway River Survey, consider the Cactus Hill site to furnish evidence of a pre-Clovis population in North America. They regard Cactus Hill as significant because it challenges previously established models of Paleoindian migration.

The Clovis first hypothesis which most anthropologists now reject, is the argument that the people associated with the Clovis culture were the first widespread inhabitants of the Americas.[2] In 1933, this view was supported by the discovery of a flint spearhead found at Clovis, New Mexico. A mammoth skeleton that was laid next to the spearhead was dated as being from 11,500 BP. At the time, this was one of the earliest indications of human activity in the Americas. The evidence suggested that the introduction of the Clovis point coincided with the extinction of the megafauna on the continent;[3] furthermore, it was believed that these people came to the Americas from Siberia through the Bering land bridge – a stretch of land that resulted from low sea levels during the Wisconsin glaciation. It is hypothesized that this allowed for migration between 14,500 and 14,000 BP.[1] In February 2014, as published in Nature, researchers reported on the results of DNA analysis of Anzick boy, a 2018-era skeleton, supported this theory in two directions: his DNA showed a connection to an estimated 80 percent of the Native Americans in both the Americas, as well as being connected to ancestral peoples in Siberia or northeast Asia.[4]

The entire theory concerning the first inhabitants being the Clovis culture was reevaluated following the discoveries at Cactus Hill in the mid-1990s. With the emergence of new evidence, the hypothesis for a pre-Clovis human occupation began to surface. A 2008 DNA study suggested "a complex model for the peopling of the Americas, in which the initial differentiation from Asian populations ended with a moderate bottleneck in Beringia during the last glacial maximum (LGM), around approximately 23,000 to approximately 19,000 years ago. Toward the end of the LGM, a strong population expansion started approximately 18,000 and finished approximately 15,000 years ago. These results support a pre-Clovis occupation of the New World, suggesting a rapid settlement of the continent along a Pacific coastal route."[5] Another Pre-Clovis site, Page-Ladson, has since been discovered in Florida and many scientists now believe that first Americans probably arrived by boat, long before the Bering land bridge became ice free.[2][6]

Discoveries

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Several inches of sand lie between the Clovis-era deposit and a lower level. This lower level, attributed to a pre-Clovis time period, includes:

  • Two Clovis points.[citation needed] Microwear on the points indicates that hafting was used. Fractures on the tips have been interpreted as meaning that they were projectiles that broke on impact.
  • Blades. Microwear indicates that they were hafted and used for butchering and hide processing.
  • Elevated phosphate levels, an indication of human occupation
  • An ample amount of phytoliths, which were further analyzed and determined to come from carbonized hickory wood
  • 20 specimens of faunal remains, of those identifiable include: ten turtle shell fragments, two whitetail deer toe bone fragments, and five fossil shark's teeth[7]

Site integrity

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A 2022 research paper suggested that Cactus Hill might have "a stratigraphically discrete occupation below Clovis". The authors then state data supporting the conclusion of separate layers of occupation had not yet been published[8] (though research had been presented in April of 2000 supporting the pre-Clovis assessment)[9] and geological soils have the potential to yield inconsistent stratigraphy.[10] Tests were conducted on the Cactus Hill site that corroborate its generally-accepted era dates. James C. Baker of Virginia Tech conducted soil analysis that indicated that the formation of the site consisted of wind-blown sand deposits and further research by James Feathers of the University of Washington confirmed that the buried sand levels had been undisturbed by later deposits. Along with this, paleoethnobotanist Lucinda McWeeney of Yale University identified charred plant remains. From this, she was able to identify a correlation between the stone artifacts and plant use at the site. The correlation indicates that the human occupation levels at the site have not been mixed. Dr. Carol Mandryk of Harvard University performed tests for the area that produced the 15,000-year-old date that showed relative stratigraphic integrity. Her tests at another area of the site failed to show proof that the sediments had not been disturbed.[11]

Research done by Richard I. Macphail of the Institute of Archaeology in London and Joseph M. McAvoy of The Nottoway River Survey contributed to the integrity discussion using a micromorphological analysis of the stratigraphy of the site. Their micromorphological observations, along with previous analyses, confirmed a series of conclusions on the integrity of Cactus Hill. They found that the formation of dunes may have been interspersed with the brief formation of a fine, phytolith-rich topsoil. As humans lived on these brief topsoil layers, they deposited artifacts and charcoal. Similarly, animals were present, which added to the dispersal and mixing of fine soil into sand dunes through their burrowing practices. The stratified sequence that can be seen today is the result of sedimentation that was interrupted by erosional processes like deflation. That sequence, based on the small-scale animal disturbance in a thin section of the strata, was most likely stable for millions of years. According to Macphail and McAvoy's analysis, it appears that the site is intact with only a few minor disturbances that could affect the long-term integrity of the site's stratigraphy.[12] David Madsen remains skeptical of these results due to a lack of relation between the sediment layers that OSL dating was performed on and the portion of the site containing human artifacts and due to a lack of assessment of the radiocarbon dates from the site.[13]

Controversy

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Many hypotheses began to arise as a result of this pre-Clovis evidence. One such hypothesis is advocated by Dennis Stanford. In what is known as the Solutrean hypothesis, he suggests that European Solutreans migrated to the Americas across the Atlantic Ocean. The supporting evidence for this hypothesis includes the discovery of artifacts at Cactus Hill dated to the time period between the Clovis and Solutrean and, perhaps just as strongly, evidence of the same technology used between the two cultures. According to Dr. Bruce Bradley, "the Cactus Hill flint was a technological midpoint between the French Solutrean style and the Clovis points dating five millennia later."[3] The major criticism to this hypothesis is that there is simply not enough evidence to support it. In their journal article, Lawrence Guy Straus, David J. Meltzer, and Ted Goebel claim, "We believe that the many differences between Solutrean and Clovis are far more significant than the few similarities, the latter being readily explained by the well-known phenomenon of technological convergence or parallelism."[14] The Solutrean hypothesis is generally disregarded by mainstream archeologists.[15]

References

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Cactus Hill

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Cactus Hill is a stratified located on a terrace above the Nottoway River in Sussex County, southeastern , recognized as one of the oldest known sites of human occupation in . The site consists of multilayered sand dunes formed during the , preserving evidence of Native American activity spanning multiple prehistoric periods, including potential pre-Clovis habitation dating to approximately 15,000–16,000 radiocarbon years (RCYBP). Its significance lies in the well-preserved stratigraphic sequence, which challenges traditional timelines for the by suggesting human presence before the , typically dated around 11,000–13,000 years ago. The site was first identified in the during amateur excavations and systematically investigated starting in 1993 by archaeologists Joseph M. McAvoy and Lynn M. McAvoy, who uncovered distinct cultural layers through controlled digs. These efforts revealed a basal eolian layer dated to about 19,500 RCYBP via radiocarbon , overlying fluvial deposits and supporting a sequence of human-modified sediments. Cactus Hill's deposits include artifacts from the Paleoindian period (potentially pre-Clovis and Clovis), Archaic, and periods, demonstrating continuous use over millennia as a overlooking the river valley. Notable findings include prismatic blades, polyhedral cores, and lanceolate bifaces from the pre-Clovis layer, associated with -like features dated to 15,070 ± 70 RCYBP and 16,670 ± 730 RCYBP. Above this, Clovis-era tools such as fluted points and a dated to 10,920 ± 250 RCYBP indicate a technological transition, while upper layers yield Early Archaic Kirk corner-notched points and Woodland pottery fragments. Sedimentological and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating confirm the integrity of these layers, formed in a dynamic coastal plain environment since the . Listed on the in 2001, Cactus Hill continues to inform debates on early American migration patterns through ongoing scholarly analysis.

Location and Environment

Site Description

The Cactus Hill , designated as 44SX202, is situated in southeastern within County, approximately 45 miles (72 km) south of Richmond and near the town of Stony Creek. It lies on elevated sand dunes overlooking the Nottoway River, positioned about 1,000 feet east of the river's modern channel. The site occupies a stable, loamy sand hill formed primarily from wind-deposited (eolian) sands and silts derived from the adjacent river to the north and west. The features parabolic dunes rising up to 10 in height, creating a multi-component elevated that spans roughly 1,000 square as a area within a larger roughly circular property of about 6 acres (600 feet in ). along the dune edges has exposed stratified sandy deposits, contributing to the site's visibility and accessibility for study. The dunes form part of the coastal plain's eolian landscape, with the overall elevation providing a vantage above the surrounding lowlands. The site's proximity to the Nottoway River offers direct access to water resources, while the surrounding environment includes adjacent pine-oak forests and wetlands typical of the region's , which historically supported diverse ecological zones. Currently, the land remains privately owned, with forest cover dominating the area and a borrow pit encroaching on the eastern boundary; it is protected through listing on the since 2001 and receives ongoing monitoring by the Virginia Department of Historic Resources, though it is not open for public visitation.

Geological Setting

Cactus Hill is situated within the , a region characterized by unconsolidated sediments deposited during the Tertiary and periods, heavily influenced by fluctuating sea levels associated with glacial-interglacial cycles. The site's geology reflects broader post-Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) dynamics, where lowered sea levels exposed extensive coastal shelves, promoting fluvial incision and aeolian reworking of sediments. Following the LGM around 21,000 years ago, rising sea levels and stabilizing climates contributed to the transition from active dune migration to stabilization, with cover preventing further significant in elevated areas. The primary geological feature at Cactus Hill consists of aeolian sands forming parabolic dunes, developed during the late Wisconsinan glacial stage approximately 18,000–20,000 years ago. These sands originated from the reworking of fluvial deposits by under colder, drier periglacial conditions that enhanced aeolian activity across the . The dune formation process involved wind transport of sands from nearby river floodplains, including potential contributions from glacial outwash materials transported southward via ancestral river systems, shaped by interactions between wind patterns and the Nottoway River's dynamics. Optical places the initiation of these aeolian deposits around 18,000 years ago, aligning with the onset of post-LGM warming that gradually reduced sand mobility. The sediment profile at the site features a surficial layer of well-stratified aeolian sands overlying a basal silty clay and fluvial sand-and-gravel unit inset against underlying Tertiary Yorktown Formation strata. The aeolian sands exhibit multisequal horizons with embedded paleosols, marking episodic soil development and climatic shifts from periglacial aridity to more temperate conditions. Overlying these are thinner alluvium and deposits, resulting from localized fluvial and slope processes as sea levels rose and the regional environment humidified. These paleosols, evident in buried horizons dated to about 19,500 radiocarbon years , indicate periods of stability interspersed with and deposition. Preservation at Cactus Hill is favored by the site's position on stable dune crests, where minimal has maintained intact stratification despite regional fluvial downcutting and sea-level fluctuations. Low rates of post-depositional disturbance, including limited and turbation, contrast with more exposed riverbank areas, allowing for the retention of primary and environmental signals from the . This geological stability underscores the site's value for reconstructing paleoenvironments, as evidenced by micromorphological analyses confirming minimal mixing in the aeolian sequences.

Discovery and Excavation History

Initial Findings

The Cactus Hill archaeological site was first identified in 1985 when local artifact collector Richard Ware reported surface finds to Howard A. MacCord Sr., the former state archaeologist of , who formally recorded it as site 44SX202 with the Department of Historic Resources. MacCord's assessment documented scatters of Paleoindian artifacts eroding from the site's sand dunes, including Clovis-like points and blades, suggesting potential deep cultural deposits extending approximately three feet into the ground. These early observations highlighted the site's location on elevated sand dunes along the Nottoway River terrace, where natural erosion exposed the materials without significant modern alteration. In the late 1980s, avocational archaeologist Joseph M. McAvoy, director of the Nottoway River Survey, conducted preliminary surveys and test excavations at the site, building on Ware's report and MacCord's documentation. McAvoy's 1988 test pits revealed intact stratified sand layers, confirming the site's multi-component potential and absence of disturbance from contemporary activities, which set it apart from typical eroded locations. These initial probes identified undisturbed aeolian sands preserving archaeological integrity, prompting further interest among professionals. McAvoy's persistent avocational efforts in the transitioned the site from informal collector notices to structured professional scrutiny, culminating in its official recognition by state archaeologists in 1993. This shift emphasized the rarity of Cactus Hill's preserved dune formations in the region, offering a unique opportunity for stratigraphic analysis of prehistoric occupations. The site's documentation as 44SX202 during this period facilitated sponsorship by the Archeological of Virginia for expanded investigations.

Key Investigations

The professional investigations at Cactus Hill commenced in 1993 under the direction of Joseph M. McAvoy and Lynn D. McAvoy through the Nottoway River Survey (NRS), marking a shift from earlier amateur collections to systematic archaeological research that extended into the early . Excavation methodologies emphasized stratigraphic profiling to delineate deposit layers, controlled screening with 1/4-inch for fine recovery, and detailed in-situ , including three-dimensional plotting of features to preserve spatial relationships. Work proceeded in excavated blocks totaling over 100 square meters, targeting areas with potential for intact sequences while adhering to rigorous standards for data integrity. Collaborations involved the Archeological Society of Virginia (ASV), with Michael F. Johnson overseeing parallel efforts, and the Virginia Department of Historic Resources for oversight and specialized analyses, ensuring independent verification of field procedures. Funding from the during the 1990s supported these phases, enabling multidisciplinary approaches to address questions of site formation and occupational history. Following the primary field seasons, post-excavation activities included site stabilization initiatives after 2000 to counter ongoing risks, culminating in a protective cultural easement established by the Department of Historic Resources.

Stratigraphy and

Layer Composition

The stratigraphic sequence at Cactus Hill consists of five main zones extending from the surface to the base, reflecting successive episodes of deposition and human activity on a stable eolian terrace. The uppermost zone is the modern layer, approximately 20 cm thick, comprising recent organic . Beneath this lies the and Archaic midden zone, about 60 cm thick, characterized by accumulated cultural debris from later prehistoric periods. The Paleoindian sands follow, roughly 40 cm thick, a layer of loose, artifact-bearing sediments associated with early occupations, including Clovis components separated from the pre-Clovis lens by 7-15 cm of sterile sand. Deeper still is the pre-Clovis lens, approximately 30 cm thick, a thin, discrete marking an earlier human presence. The basal zone, below approximately 150 cm, forms a sterile dune of unculturally modified sand. Sediment characteristics vary systematically across these zones, indicating a progression from biologically active upper deposits to increasingly inert lower ones. The modern and layers feature organic-rich loams enriched with fragments and humic aggregates, reflecting development and midden accumulation. In contrast, the Paleoindian sands contain dispersed within finer-grained, well-sorted eolian materials, showing limited pedogenesis. The pre-Clovis lens appears as a compacted horizon with concentrated fine , while the basal sterile dune consists of clean, cross-bedded aeolian sands lacking organic content or disturbance features. These variations stem primarily from wind-blown deposition, with minor bioturbation evident in upper levels. Cultural interfaces are marked by distinct paleosols that delineate occupational boundaries, including buried surfaces with faint humic staining and lamellae formation separating the zones. Notably, the pre-Clovis lens, referred to as Component C, stands out as a thin interface with elevated concentrations of flaking debris embedded in a slightly mixed sandy matrix, indicating short-term activity rather than prolonged use. Sterile sand units, 7-20 cm thick, intervene between key horizons, preserving stratigraphic separation. Vertically, artifact density diminishes progressively downward, with the highest concentrations in the midden and Paleoindian zones transitioning to sparse occurrences in the pre-Clovis lens and none in the basal dune. This pattern points to episodic occupations punctuated by periods of site abandonment and natural sand accumulation, rather than sustained habitation. The basal sterile dune sands originate from aeolian reworking of fluvial materials from the adjacent Nottoway River .

Dating Methods and Results

The primary dating methods applied at Cactus Hill include (AMS) on and organic materials from hearths and sediments, as well as optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating on grains to establish ages for layers lacking sufficient organics. Radiocarbon dating of the basal pre-Clovis layer yielded uncalibrated ages ranging from approximately 15,000–20,000 , with representative samples including 19,700 ± 130 from conifer below the artifact zone and 15,070 ± 70 from white pine in associated . These dates calibrate to approximately 18,000–23,000 cal for the layer, though the pre-Clovis occupation is associated with ~18,000 cal ; early 1990s assays showed inconsistencies attributed to the , where long-lived trees produced ages older than the associated human activity. Paleoindian layers, including Clovis components, returned uncalibrated radiocarbon ages of approximately 10,900–11,500 , such as 10,920 ± 250 from a Clovis (calibrating to ~12,900–12,850 cal ). Later Archaic and periods are dated to 3,000–10,000 uncalibrated, with examples like 9,070 ± 65 for Early Archaic materials, while surface scatters reflect modern activity. OSL dating, using single-grain quartz analysis, targeted pre-charcoal dune sediments and confirmed the site's basal age at over 18,000 years, with the pre-Clovis layer yielding 18,200–18,600 cal BP. Refinements in OSL techniques during the 2010s, building on single-aliquot and Bayesian modeling, upheld the dune's formation age greater than 18,000 years without evidence of significant post-depositional mixing. However, some dates have been questioned due to potential old wood effects, stratigraphic mixing from bioturbation, and anomalous results, contributing to ongoing scholarly debates about the validity of the pre-Clovis occupation. No new dating efforts using these or other methods, such as uranium-series, have been reported as of November 2025.

Artifacts and Cultural Evidence

Pre-Clovis Assemblage

The pre-Clovis assemblage at Cactus Hill, recovered from the site's deepest cultural layers, primarily consists of cores, prismatic s, utilized flakes, edge-trimmed unifacial tools, and , all manufactured from locally available sourced from the nearby Nottoway River. Limited bifaces are present, unlike the fluted points characteristic of later Paleoindian technologies, suggesting an early lithic tradition emphasizing production and simple unifacial implements for processing tasks. The assemblage, consisting of approximately 20 pieces including 15 , 3 prismatic s, and 2 bifaces from a thin basal lens, reflects a focused technological adapted to the local environment. Feature evidence in these basal layers includes hearth-like concentrations of , interpreted as potential domestic activity areas within what excavators term Component C. Associated faunal remains are sparse but include fragments of bone, indicating possible exploitation of in the landscape. The artifacts display percussion flaking patterns, including prepared platforms for blade detachment, that differ from the bifacial reduction sequences typical of Clovis assemblages above. These materials occur in primary depositional context within a 10-15 cm thick lens situated 10-20 cm below the Clovis horizon, with sedimentological studies confirming minimal vertical displacement or post-depositional mixing. The layer's age, estimated at 15,000 to 20,000 years ago based on of associated charcoal, underscores its stratigraphic separation from overlying occupations.

Later Period Materials

The Clovis component above the pre-Clovis layer includes fluted points, unifaces, prismatic blades, and a , representing a technological shift to bifacial flaking and spear points. Upper layers contain Early Archaic artifacts such as corner-notched points, along with other stone tools from a nearby quartzite cobble source, indicating intensified use during this period. The is represented by pottery fragments and additional stone tools, marking the site's continued occupation into later prehistoric times.

Significance and Debates

Pre-Clovis Implications

The evidence from Cactus Hill's pre-Clovis layers, including prismatic blades and lanceolate bifaces dated to approximately 15,070 ± 70 radiocarbon years (calibrated to 18,680–18,050 years ), challenges the long-dominant Clovis-first model, which posited that humans first entered the around 13,000 years ago via an ice-free corridor from . These findings suggest human presence in eastern more than 15,000 years ago, supporting alternative migration routes such as coastal pathways along the Atlantic or Pacific margins during the , potentially allowing earlier dispersal south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. In comparative context, Cactus Hill aligns with other pre-Clovis sites like in (dated to at least 14,500 calendar years BP) and in (with occupations potentially exceeding 16,000 radiocarbon years BP), reinforcing a pattern of human antiquity predating 13,000 years BP across diverse regions of the . These parallels indicate widespread early human adaptation rather than isolated anomalies, with Cactus Hill's blade-based technologies echoing lithic traditions at sites like Topper in . Paleoecologically, the site's pre-Clovis occupations coincide with the Late Glacial Maximum, a period of eolian dune formation and environmental instability around 18,000–15,000 years BP, implying human groups exploited dynamic landscapes for and resource mobility. Some researchers have briefly noted potential typological links between Cactus Hill's bifacial tools and the culture of , hypothesizing transatlantic migration, though this remains unsubstantiated by genetic or widespread archaeological evidence. The site's implications have contributed to shifts in the , influencing scholarly consensus toward pre-Clovis timelines and prompting reevaluations of early American settlement, including citations in discussions of indigenous cultural antiquity for legal and heritage recognitions.

Scholarly Controversies

The interpretation of Cactus Hill as a pre-Clovis site has faced significant scrutiny regarding the reliability of its dating methods, particularly radiocarbon and optically stimulated (OSL) analyses. Early radiocarbon dates from in the basal layers, ranging from approximately 15,000 to 18,000 radiocarbon years (rcybp), have been questioned due to potential contamination from old wood effects or intrusive materials, as the samples consist of small, isolated fragments that could represent non-contemporaneous sources. Similarly, OSL dates on sediments yielding ages around 15,700 ± 1,500 and 18,100 ± 1,800 years ago are considered minimum estimates and may be influenced by sediment mixing, partial bleaching during deposition, or post-depositional disturbances, undermining their precision for establishing human occupation timelines. These concerns highlight broader methodological challenges in dating sandy, eolian contexts like Cactus Hill, where organic preservation is limited and environmental factors complicate chronological resolution. Stratigraphic integrity at the site has also been a focal point of , with critics arguing that post-depositional processes could blur layer boundaries and introduce mixing. Micromorphological studies reveal of minor bioturbation from small and scavenging animals, as well as localized and , which may have caused small-scale downward movement of materials across strata. Although these analyses conclude that the overall remains largely intact with no of large-scale disturbance, skeptics point to the site's sandy dune setting as prone to such alterations, potentially allowing later artifacts or sediments to infiltrate older layers and compromise the separation between pre-Clovis and Clovis components. The absence of organic human remains or clear contextual features further exacerbates these issues, leaving interpretations reliant on indirect that could be affected by natural site formation processes. Debates over artifact authenticity center on whether the basal tools—primarily blades, bifaces, and flakes made from local and metavolcanics—represent genuine anthropogenic activity or naturally occurring geofacts shaped by geological processes. The assemblage is notably small and lacks detailed typological description, with some pieces resembling later Archaic forms rather than distinct pre-Clovis technologies, raising doubts about their cultural attribution. Without associated faunal remains, hearths, or other unambiguous human modifications, proponents of skepticism argue that fluvial or eolian abrasion in the site's environment could produce similar lithic forms, complicating claims of human manufacture. Initial reports from the excavations were published in non-peer-reviewed formats, such as archaeological society bulletins, prompting challenges in academic literature for insufficient rigorous validation. By the early , critiques in journals emphasized the need for independent verification, with some analyses questioning the site's pre-Clovis status due to the cumulative methodological uncertainties. As of 2025, while subsequent studies have provided supportive geoarchaeological data affirming partial stratigraphic stability, a October 2025 review in Science Advances includes Cactus Hill among 10 sites with robust evidence of pre-Clovis occupations dating to ~18,000 calendar years B.P. or earlier, though the site's specific pre-Clovis occupation remains non-consensus, viewed as plausible but requiring further excavation and interdisciplinary confirmation to resolve ongoing disputes.

References

  1. https://www.dhr.virginia.gov/historic-registers/091-5026/
  2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/gea.10120
  3. https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/context/sciaa_staffpub/article/1026/viewcontent/Goodyear___Book_Chapter___Evidence_of_Pre_Clovis_Sites_in_the_Eastern_United_States.pdf
  4. https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/cactus-hill-archaeological-site/
  5. https://www.dhr.virginia.gov/VLR_to_transfer/PDFNoms/091-5026_Cactus_Hill_Archaeological_Site_2001_Draft_Nomination_no_map.pdf
  6. https://sussexcountyva.gov/visit/about-sussex/
  7. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/handle/internal/12396
  8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240441934_Luminescence_dating_of_sand_deposits_related_to_Late_Pleistocene_human_occupation_at_the_Cactus_Hill_Site_Virginia_USA
  9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230180373_Pedoarchaeology_of_Cactus_Hill_a_Sandy_Paleoindian_site_in_southeastern_Virginia_USA
  10. http://www.lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2009novembercactushillpage1.htm
  11. https://www.dailypress.com/2000/04/11/new-evidence-found-in-va-of-first-americans/
  12. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230323818_A_micromorphological_analysis_of_stratigraphic_integrity_and_site_formation_at_Cactus_Hill_an_Early_Paleoindian_and_hypothesized_pre-Clovis_occupation_in_south-central_Virginia_USA
  13. https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=sciaa_staffpub
  14. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1871101406000483
  15. https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/655380/18097-27919-1-PB.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
  16. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aaz0455
  17. http://www.lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2009novembercactushillpage2.htm
  18. https://www.thoughtco.com/cactus-hill-usa-possible-preclovis-site-170434
  19. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/20555563.2016.1212178
  20. https://popular-archaeology.com/article/out-of-europe/
  21. https://www.academia.edu/30335079/Is_That_All_There_Is_The_Weak_Case_for_Pre_Clovis_Occupation_of_Eastern_North_America
  22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290483431_Is_that_all_there_is_The_weak_case_for_Pre-Clovis_occupation_of_Eastern_North_America
  23. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-antiquity/article/older-than-we-thought-implications-of-corrected-dates-for-paleoindians/44AFE61B3171F53D44BA8C6BF8A5A513
  24. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ady9545
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