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Drumming (snipe)
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Drumming (snipe)
Drumming (also called bleating or winnowing) is a sound produced by snipe as part of their courtship display flights. The sound is produced mechanically (rather than vocally) by the vibration of the outer tail feathers when flying in a downwards, swooping motion. The drumming display is usually crepuscular, though it can also be heard at any point throughout the breeding season, as well as sporadically during their migration period. Drumming is commonly heard within the context of a mating display, but it can also be displayed as means of distraction when conspecific intruders or potential predators are in the area — this can benefit male snipe in attracting a female mate. The weather can also have an impact on the acoustic properties of drumming — more humid weather will not allow the sound to carry as far and will create a deeper tone.
In looking at drumming in the different genera of snipes, the genus Gallinago (synonym Capella) is the most widely researched. This genus comprises 18 species; however, the two snipe that are the most prominent in research into this group are the common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) in Eurasia and the Wilson's snipe (Gallinago delicata) in North America. Despite being quite similar in their appearance, the common snipe and the Wilson's snipe have several morphological differences that allow for there to be differences in their drumming behaviour; the most obvious difference being that common snipe has seven pairs of rectrices (tail feathers) compared to eight pairs in the Wilson's snipe. The African snipe and Madagascar snipe both have similar drumming to the common snipe, while the pin-tailed snipe from Asia, with 14 pairs of tail feathers (of which the outer seven on each side very slender), produces a highly distinct buzzing sound. Swinhoe's snipe, with usually ten pairs of tail feathers, also produces a distinct drum. Conversely, some species in the genus, such as the great snipe, do not drum at all.
When the discovery was made that this mysterious drumming sound was produced by snipe, there were many naturalists that wanted to learn how the sound was actually being produced, which led to a number of experimental studies. The first of many was conducted in the year 1830 by a German scientist Johann Friedrich Naumann who proposed that the sound was being produced by the wings. A few years later after reading Naumann's proposal, the scientist Friedrich Wilhelm Meves conducted studies that looked in-depth at the tail feathers of snipe. It was eventually confirmed through Meve's experiments that the drumming sound was produced by the tail feathers.
The drumming sound produced by snipe is usually heard within the context of the mating display, though that is not always the case. These display flights are performed by both sexes in threat contexts as well and appear to be antagonistic in their action, even when directed by males to females. The display flight, sometimes referred to as a winnowing flight, is used in diving at conspecific intruders and potential predators, with the male at times attacking in flight, a clear demonstration of antagonism but can also function to attract females.
Though snipe drum at any point throughout the breeding season, and sporadically during migration periods, the maximum drumming period is during the twilight hours of the evening and morning. Very rarely are snipe heard drumming before dawn, or for as many minutes, after sunset. In looking at the various contexts in which drumming is performed, the most common can be seen in territorial displays. Like during the migration periods, drumming as a territorial display occurs sporadically at any point in the year, though it is most intense on the breeding grounds. These displays are mainly performed by male snipe and they can be distinguished by their frayed middle tail-feathers. Drumming can also be performed in a sexual display over home range. If a snipe is disturbed by a suspected intruder, then they may start drumming as a way to distract the potential threat. This context of drumming can be seen in both male and female snipe during the early part of the breeding season.
Depending on weather conditions as well, the acoustic properties of drumming in snipe can vary. For example, if the weather is humid then the drumming sound will not carry as far and the tone will actually be deeper. Weather conditions such as wind, rain or dense fog can also have an effect on the quality of drumming that is produced. In the province of Newfoundland, there is usually a rapid drop in temperature after sunset and a fast rise in temperature after sunrise and this can also effect drumming.
It was once believed that the drumming sound was produced by the vocal organs, though it has since been confirmed that is not the case. The specifics of how this extraordinary sound is produced can be explained by looking at the tail feathers. The sound is generated by vibration of the outer rectrices in the airstream modified by the set of wings. Drumming in G. gallinago and G. delicata begins quite soft, increasing in volume and frequency as the dive progresses, reaching a crescendo just before the dive concludes. Each drum is several seconds in length and is full of rich harmonies.
In looking at the aerodynamics of drumming, the two outer tail-feathers of the snipe, when widely expanded, can actually vibrate without interference from the outer rectrices. In order for the drumming sound to be produced, the snipe must reach a velocity of 40.2 km/h (25 mph) which is required to start the vibration of the outer tail-feathers. In experiments carried out by Carr-Lewty, it was discovered that an air speed of 60.4 km/h (37.5 mph) gave a good indication of drumming at its average pitch; 38.9 km/h (24.2 mph) was the slowest average speed to produce the drumming and 84.2 km/h (52.3 mph) was the speed reached to produce its maximum pitch. Because the outer tail-feathers are somewhat elastic, they are able to bend about their shafts under air pressure. In bending this way, along with the twisting of the outer tail-feathers, the length of the vibration is continuous as long as the required air speed is maintained.
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Drumming (snipe)
Drumming (also called bleating or winnowing) is a sound produced by snipe as part of their courtship display flights. The sound is produced mechanically (rather than vocally) by the vibration of the outer tail feathers when flying in a downwards, swooping motion. The drumming display is usually crepuscular, though it can also be heard at any point throughout the breeding season, as well as sporadically during their migration period. Drumming is commonly heard within the context of a mating display, but it can also be displayed as means of distraction when conspecific intruders or potential predators are in the area — this can benefit male snipe in attracting a female mate. The weather can also have an impact on the acoustic properties of drumming — more humid weather will not allow the sound to carry as far and will create a deeper tone.
In looking at drumming in the different genera of snipes, the genus Gallinago (synonym Capella) is the most widely researched. This genus comprises 18 species; however, the two snipe that are the most prominent in research into this group are the common snipe (Gallinago gallinago) in Eurasia and the Wilson's snipe (Gallinago delicata) in North America. Despite being quite similar in their appearance, the common snipe and the Wilson's snipe have several morphological differences that allow for there to be differences in their drumming behaviour; the most obvious difference being that common snipe has seven pairs of rectrices (tail feathers) compared to eight pairs in the Wilson's snipe. The African snipe and Madagascar snipe both have similar drumming to the common snipe, while the pin-tailed snipe from Asia, with 14 pairs of tail feathers (of which the outer seven on each side very slender), produces a highly distinct buzzing sound. Swinhoe's snipe, with usually ten pairs of tail feathers, also produces a distinct drum. Conversely, some species in the genus, such as the great snipe, do not drum at all.
When the discovery was made that this mysterious drumming sound was produced by snipe, there were many naturalists that wanted to learn how the sound was actually being produced, which led to a number of experimental studies. The first of many was conducted in the year 1830 by a German scientist Johann Friedrich Naumann who proposed that the sound was being produced by the wings. A few years later after reading Naumann's proposal, the scientist Friedrich Wilhelm Meves conducted studies that looked in-depth at the tail feathers of snipe. It was eventually confirmed through Meve's experiments that the drumming sound was produced by the tail feathers.
The drumming sound produced by snipe is usually heard within the context of the mating display, though that is not always the case. These display flights are performed by both sexes in threat contexts as well and appear to be antagonistic in their action, even when directed by males to females. The display flight, sometimes referred to as a winnowing flight, is used in diving at conspecific intruders and potential predators, with the male at times attacking in flight, a clear demonstration of antagonism but can also function to attract females.
Though snipe drum at any point throughout the breeding season, and sporadically during migration periods, the maximum drumming period is during the twilight hours of the evening and morning. Very rarely are snipe heard drumming before dawn, or for as many minutes, after sunset. In looking at the various contexts in which drumming is performed, the most common can be seen in territorial displays. Like during the migration periods, drumming as a territorial display occurs sporadically at any point in the year, though it is most intense on the breeding grounds. These displays are mainly performed by male snipe and they can be distinguished by their frayed middle tail-feathers. Drumming can also be performed in a sexual display over home range. If a snipe is disturbed by a suspected intruder, then they may start drumming as a way to distract the potential threat. This context of drumming can be seen in both male and female snipe during the early part of the breeding season.
Depending on weather conditions as well, the acoustic properties of drumming in snipe can vary. For example, if the weather is humid then the drumming sound will not carry as far and the tone will actually be deeper. Weather conditions such as wind, rain or dense fog can also have an effect on the quality of drumming that is produced. In the province of Newfoundland, there is usually a rapid drop in temperature after sunset and a fast rise in temperature after sunrise and this can also effect drumming.
It was once believed that the drumming sound was produced by the vocal organs, though it has since been confirmed that is not the case. The specifics of how this extraordinary sound is produced can be explained by looking at the tail feathers. The sound is generated by vibration of the outer rectrices in the airstream modified by the set of wings. Drumming in G. gallinago and G. delicata begins quite soft, increasing in volume and frequency as the dive progresses, reaching a crescendo just before the dive concludes. Each drum is several seconds in length and is full of rich harmonies.
In looking at the aerodynamics of drumming, the two outer tail-feathers of the snipe, when widely expanded, can actually vibrate without interference from the outer rectrices. In order for the drumming sound to be produced, the snipe must reach a velocity of 40.2 km/h (25 mph) which is required to start the vibration of the outer tail-feathers. In experiments carried out by Carr-Lewty, it was discovered that an air speed of 60.4 km/h (37.5 mph) gave a good indication of drumming at its average pitch; 38.9 km/h (24.2 mph) was the slowest average speed to produce the drumming and 84.2 km/h (52.3 mph) was the speed reached to produce its maximum pitch. Because the outer tail-feathers are somewhat elastic, they are able to bend about their shafts under air pressure. In bending this way, along with the twisting of the outer tail-feathers, the length of the vibration is continuous as long as the required air speed is maintained.
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