French invasion of Egypt and Syria

The French invasion of Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) was a military expedition led by Napoleon Bonaparte during the French Revolutionary Wars. The campaign aimed to undermine British trade routes, expand French influence, and establish a scientific and administrative presence in Egypt. Napoleon also sought to sever Britain's connection to its colonial holdings in India, with the long-term ambition of challenging British dominance in the region.

Departing from Toulon in May 1798, Napoleon’s fleet, comprising around 36,000 troops, landed in Alexandria on 28 June. Advancing rapidly, he defeated the ruling Mamluks at the Battle of the Pyramids, securing control of Cairo and establishing a French administration. The campaign, however, was soon compromised by the destruction of the French fleet at Aboukir Bay by Horatio Nelson, which cut off French reinforcements and supplies. French rule faced resistance, including the Cairo uprising (1798), which was suppressed with significant casualties. Seeking to consolidate French gains, Napoleon advanced into Ottoman Syria, aiming to preempt an Ottoman counteroffensive, but his campaign ended in failure at the Siege of Acre (1799), where Anglo-Ottoman forces, supported by the Royal Navy, repelled French assaults.

Recognising the strategic situation and political opportunities in France, Napoleon left Egypt in August 1799, returning to France, where he seized political power. The French army, left under Jean-Baptiste Kléber, continued to resist, but following his assassination, Jacques-François Menou assumed command and struggled to maintain control. The French were ultimately defeated by British-Ottoman forces and surrendered in 1801.

The campaign had significant military, political, and intellectual consequences. Napoleon’s presence in Egypt introduced European-style governance, but it also reinforced resistance among local populations. The scientific expedition accompanying the invasion produced the Description de l'Égypte, a seminal work that laid the foundation for modern Egyptology. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone allowed for the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphs. The campaign also contributed to the rise of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who later established modern Egypt.

The Peace of Campo Formio concluded the First War of the Coalition in France's favour. This left Great Britain as the only major European power still at war with the French Republic. Following naval defeats at Cape St Vincent and Camperdown, a direct invasion of Britain became impossible, prompting the French government to explore alternative strategies to weaken British influence.

The possibility of establishing French control over Egypt had been considered since François Baron de Tott conducted a secret reconnaissance mission to the Levant in 1777 to determine its feasibility. His report was favourable, but no immediate action followed. Nevertheless, Egypt became a topic of debate between Talleyrand and Napoleon Bonaparte, which continued in their correspondence during Napoleon's Italian campaign. Their correspondence reflected a growing interest in Egypt's potential as a colonial and strategic asset, particularly as a means to challenge British dominance in India.

At the time Egypt had been under Ottoman sovereignty since the early 16th century. French merchants had been strongly represented there since the 15th century, and France maintained good relations with the Ottomans. However, Ismail Bey, the Mamluk Shaykh al-balad, who ruled Egypt on behalf of the Ottomans and was well-disposed towards the French, died in 1791 during an epidemic in Cairo. His rivals, Ibrahim Bey and Murad Bey, took power and took action against the French in the country. Exposed to more and more repression, the French merchants asked for intervention. France therefore had two formal reasons to intervene: Firstly, the Kingdom of France had been an ally of the Ottoman Sultan since 1536 and could claim to want to restore his authority. Secondly, since the French Revolution, France could argue that it also wanted to bring the Egyptians freedom from the yoke of feudal Mamluk rule. The decision of 1798 was a complex mixture of geostrategic, economic, political and personal interests, dressed up with the ideals of the French Revolution. Napoleon regarded the capture of Egypt as the most important step to neutralise the massive economic advantages that Great Britain derived from trade with India and to force Great Britain to make concessions. In August 1797, he wrote in a letter to the Directory:

Les temps ne sont pas éloignés, où nous sentirons que, pour détruire véritablement l'Angleterre, il faut nous emparer de l'Égypt.