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Eurasian beaver
Eurasian beaver
Eurasian beaver
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Eurasian beaver
A Eurasian beaver in Norway
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Castoridae
Genus: Castor
Species:
C. fiber
Binomial name
Castor fiber
  Castor fiber: Extant (resident)
  Castor fiber: Extant & Introduced (resident)
  Castor canadensis: Extant & Introduced (resident)
in the Narew River, Poland

The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) or European beaver is a species of beaver widespread across Eurasia, with a rapidly increasing population of at least 1.5 million in 2020. The Eurasian beaver was hunted to near-extinction for both its fur and castoreum, with only about 1,200 beavers in eight relict populations from France to Mongolia in the early 20th century. It has since been reintroduced into much of its former range and now lives from Western, Southern, Central and Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, Russia through China and Mongolia, with about half the population in Russia. It is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.[1]

Taxonomy

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Castor fiber was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, who described the beaver in his work Systema Naturae.[2] Between 1792 and 1997, several Eurasian beaver zoological specimens were described and proposed as subspecies, including:[3]

These descriptions were largely based on very small differences in fur colour and cranial morphology, none of which warrant a subspecific distinction.[7] In 2005, analysis of mitochondrial DNA of Eurasian beaver samples showed that only two evolutionarily significant units exist: a western phylogroup in Western and Central Europe, and an eastern phylogroup in the region east of the Oder and Vistula rivers.[8] The eastern phylogroup is genetically more diverse, but still at a degree below thresholds considered sufficient for subspecific differentiation.[9]

Description

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The Eurasian beaver's fur colour varies between regions. Light, chestnut-rust is the dominant colour in Belarus. In Russia's Sozh River basin, it is predominantly blackish brown, while in the Voronezh Nature Reserve beavers are both brown and blackish-brown.[10][page needed]

The Eurasian beaver is one of the largest living rodent species and the largest rodent native to Eurasia. Its head-to-body length is 80–100 cm (31–39 in) with a 25–50 cm (9.8–19.7 in) long tail length. It weighs around 11–30 kg (24–66 lb).[10] By the average weights known, it appears to be the world's second heaviest rodent after the capybara, and is slightly larger and heavier than the North American beaver.[11][12][13] One exceptionally large recorded specimen weighed 31.7 kg (70 lb), but it is reportedly possible for the species to exceptionally exceed 40 kg (88 lb).[14]

Differences from North American beaver

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Skulls of a European and North American beaver

Although the Eurasian beaver appears superficially similar to the North American beaver, there are several important differences, chief among these being that the North American beaver has 40 chromosomes, while the Eurasian beaver has 48. The two species are not genetically compatible: the result of over 27 attempts in Russia to hybridise the two species was just one stillborn kit, bred from the pairing of a male North American beaver and a female Eurasian beaver. The difference in chromosome count makes interspecific breeding unlikely in areas where the two species' ranges overlap.[10]

Fur

[edit]

The guard hairs of the Eurasian beaver have longer hollow medullae at their tips. There is also a difference in the frequency of fur colours: 66% of Eurasian beavers overall have beige or pale brown fur, 20% have reddish brown, nearly 8% are brown, and only 4% have blackish coats; among North American beavers, 50% have pale brown fur, 25% are reddish brown, 20% are brown, and 6% are blackish.[10]

Distribution and habitat

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The Eurasian beaver is recovering from near extinction, after depredation by humans for its fur and for castoreum, a secretion of its scent gland believed to have medicinal properties.[15][16] The estimated population was only 1,200 by the early 20th century.[17][18] In many European nations, the Eurasian beaver became extinct, but reintroduction and protection programmes led to gradual recovery so that by 2020, the population was at least 1.5 million.[19] It likely survived east of the Ural Mountains from a 19th-century population as low as 300 animals. Factors contributing to their survival include their ability to maintain sufficient genetic diversity to recover from a population as low as three individuals, and that beavers are monogamous and select mates that are genetically different from themselves.[20][21] About 83% of Eurasian beavers live in the former Soviet Union due to reintroductions.[9]

Continental Europe

[edit]
Eurasian beaver

The Eurasian beaver lives in almost all countries in continental Europe, from Spain and France in the west, to Russia and Moldova in the east, and Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria in the southeast. In 2022 and again in 2025 beaver signs were found and documented in Portugal, in regions near the border with Spain. The only significant areas where it has no known population are the southern Balkans: Albania, Kosovo, Northern Macedonia, Greece and European Turkey. It is also not known to be present in the microstates of Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and Vatican City.[1][22]

In Spain, the beaver was extirpated in the 17th century.[16] In 2003, 18 beavers were unofficially released. Current range includes the Ebro river in La Rioja, Navarre, and province of Zaragoza; the Zadorra river up to Vitoria-Gasteiz, the Arga river up to Pamplona, the Huerva river up to Mezalocha, and the Jalón river into the province of Soria.[23] In November 2021, a young beaver was photographed for the first time outside the Ebro basin, in the upper Douro river in Soria.[24] In 2020, the population was estimated to be more than 1,000.[19] In June 2024, a beaver was sighted at the Tagus river basin near Zorita de los Canes.[25]

In Portugal, the beaver was distributed mostly in the main river basins north of the Tagus River,[26] until it was extirpated around 1450.[19] In 2023, signs of beaver activity were found on the Douro river about 5 km from the Spanish border.[27] In 2025, it was confirmed that the beaver had returned to Portugal, at the Douro International Park.[28]

In France, the Eurasian beaver was almost extirpated by the late 19th century, with only a small population of about 100 individuals surviving in the lower Rhône valley. Following protection measures in 1968 and 26 reintroduction projects, it re-colonised the Rhône river and its tributaries, including the Saône, and other river systems such as Loire, Moselle, Tarn and Seine. In 2011, the French beaver population was estimated at 14,000 individuals living along 10,500 km (6,500 mi) of watercourses.[29] In 2022, its range was estimated to have increased to 17,000 km (11,000 mi) of watercourses.[30]

In the Netherlands, beavers were completely extirpated by 1826. Due to official reintroductions since 1988, beavers are now found in most parts of the country, in particular the south, centre and north-west.[31] The population was around 3500 in 2019.[19]

In Belgium the beaver was extirpated in 1848. Current populations are descendants of animals released in the Ardennes in 1998–2000 and in Flanders in 2003. Some beavers also arrived in Flanders from the Netherlands in 2003. In 2018, the population was 2,200–2,400, with Flanders having around 400 beavers and Wallonia 1,800–2,000 beavers.[19]

In Germany, around 200 Eurasian beavers survived at the end of the 19th century in the Elbe river system in Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg.[32] Official reintroduction programs, in particular in Bavaria, resulted in major population growth and beavers are now found throughout most of eastern and southern Germany, with strongly established disjunct populations in the west.[33][19] By 2019, beavers numbered above 40,000, and appear in many urban areas.[34]

In Poland, as of 2014, the beaver population had grown to 100,000 individuals.[35]

In Switzerland, the Eurasian beaver was hunted to extirpation in the early 19th century. Between 1956 and 1977, 141 individuals from France, Russia and Norway[36] were reintroduced to 30 sites in the Rhône and Rhine catchment areas. As of 2019, Switzerland had an estimated 3,500 beavers (a sharp increase from 1,600 beavers in 2008), with permanent beaver presence along most larger rivers of the Swiss plateau and the Swiss Alps (with the exception of Ticino).[37]

In Italy, beavers returned in 2018 after an absence of almost 500 years, when they were spotted in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region.[38][39]

In Romania, beavers became extinct in 1824, but were reintroduced in 1998 along the Olt River, spreading to other rivers in Covasna County.[40] In 2014, the animals were confirmed to have reached the Danube Delta.[41]

In Russia, by 1917, beaver populations remained in four isolated territories: in the Dnieper basin; in the Don basin; in the northern Urals and in the upper reaches of the Yenisei along the Azas river. The total number of beavers did not exceed 900 heads. Beaver hunting was banned in 1922. In 1923, a hunting reserve was organised in the Voronezh region along the Usman river, which in 1927 was transformed into the Voronezh State Reserve. At the same time, two more such reserves were created: Berezinsky and Kondo-Sosvinsky. 1927 also included the first attempts to reintroduce beavers in other areas. As a result, by the end of the 1960s, the beaver's range in the Soviet Union was almost as large as in the 17th century. The beavers' growing numbers made commercial capture possible again. In 2016, there were an estimated 661,000 beavers in Russia; in 2019, the estimate was 774,600.[42]

In the lands that made up the Soviet Union, almost 17,000 beavers were translocated from 1927 to 2004. Some 5,000 of these went to Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States and Kazakhstan.[17]

In Bulgaria, fossil, subfossil and subrecent remains have been found in 43 localities along 28 lowland rivers, from Struma and Maritsa in the south till the Danube in the north, while the last finds from Nicopolis ad Istrum date to the 1750–1850 period.[43][44] In 2021, the Eurasian beaver was confirmed to have returned to Bulgaria.[45]

In Serbia, beavers were mostly extinct by the 1870s, with the last specimens being seen around 1900–1902. In 2004, 31 beavers were reintroduced in the Zasavica reserve by the Biology Faculty of the Belgrade University in collaboration with the Bavarian Science Society, and 45 beavers were released in the Obedska bara reserve. They spread quickly. By 2020, they had spread 150 km (93 mi) north, west and east, inhabiting rivers in the Sava-Danube system (Drina, Jadar, Great Morava, Tamnava, Tisza, Bega, Timiș, the canal system in Vojvodina), they were found in the capital Belgrade, and had spread to neighbouring Bosnia and Herzegovina.[46][47][48]

In 1999, after a beaver was shot in Northern Serbia (Vojvodina, Bačka region) that had dispersed from Hungary's re-established population, a reintroduction program was initiated also in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[49] Between 2005 and 2006, a total of 40 were introduced into the Semešnica and Sokočnica rivers in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Based on a recent study, the current reserve network should be expanded further to assist the colonisation process of the Eurasian beavers to reduce mortality and mitigate potential conflicts with people.[50]

In Croatia, the Eurasian beaver was hunted to extinction by the end of the 19th century. It was reintroduced from 1996 to 1998 in the Sava and Drava rivers.[51]

Beavers spread from Croatia into Slovenia along the Sava, Drava, Mura and Kolpa rivers.[52]

In Greece, the Eurasian beaver was present in the Last Glacial Period; remains have been found in Epirus.[53] Beaver remains from the Neolithic have been found in coastal Evros and Argura; from the Neolithic to Bronze Age transition period in the Ptolemaida basin and in Sitagroi; and beaver remains from the Early Helladic II have been found in northeastern Peloponnese.[54][55][56][57] In the 4th century BC, Aristotle described this species under the name λάταξ/ (latax). He wrote that it is wider than the otter, with strong teeth, and at night it often uses these teeth to cut down trees on riverbanks.[58] Ιt's not clear when beavers vanished from Kastoria (which may have been named after the beaver – κάστορας in Greek), but as late as the 18th century they were still hunted for fur.[59] Buffon wrote that they were very rare in Greece at that time.[60] In the 19th century, beavers could still be found in the Alfeios river and in Mesolongi.[61]

The beaver resurgence in Eurasia has brought an increase in human-beaver encounters. In May 2013, a Belarusian fisherman who "tried to grab" a beaver died after it bit him several times, severing an artery in his leg, which caused him to bleed to death.[62]

The Nordics

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In Denmark, the beaver appears to have gone extinct 2,000–2,500 years ago, though a small population might have survived into the 1st millennium AD.[63][64] In 1999, 18 beavers were reintroduced to the river Flynder in Klosterhede Plantage state forest in west-central Jutland, brought from the Elbe river in Germany.[65] At Arresø in northern Zealand, 23 beavers were reintroduced between 2009 and 2011.[66] By 2019, it was estimated that the Jutland population had increased to 240–270 individuals, and had spread far, from Hanstholm in the north to Varde and Kolding in the south. The population in northern Zealand, which had yet to significantly expand its geographic range, had increased to 50–60 individuals in 2019.[67]

In Norway, there was still a beaver population in the early 1900s, one of the few surviving in Europe at that time. Following protection, the Norwegian range of the species has expanded.[1] The surviving population was in southern Norway; beavers were reintroduced to central Norway's Ingdalselva River watershed on the Agdenes peninsula in Sør-Trøndelag in 1968–1969. The area is hilly to mountainous, with many small watersheds. Rivers are often too steep for beavers, so their habitat is scattered, and there's often only room for one territory in a habitat patch. The beavers spread slowly from watershed to watershed in the hilly terrain. Some spread could only be plausibly explained by assuming travel through sheltered sea water in fjords.[68]

In Sweden, the Eurasian beaver had been hunted to extinction around 1870.[15] Between 1922 and 1939, some 80 individuals were imported from Norway and introduced to 19 sites in Sweden. In 1995, the Swedish beaver population was estimated at 100,000.[69]

In Finland, there are some Eurasian beavers that have been re-introduced or spread from Sweden, but most of the Finnish population is a released North American beaver population. This population is controlled to prevent it from spreading into areas inhabited by the Eurasian beaver.[1]

British Isles

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Beaver dam, Scotland
The same dam four months later
Beaver tracks in snow

The Eurasian beaver was well-established in Great Britain, but was driven extinct there by humans in the 16th century, with the last known historical reference in England in 1526.[70] It is unclear whether beavers ever existed in Ireland.[71] In the early 21st century, the beaver became the first mammal to be successfully reintroduced in the United Kingdom, after unofficial and official reintroductions to Scotland and England.[72]

Scotland

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In Scotland, free-living beaver populations occur around in several parts of the highlands following re-introduction efforts. The first official releases were in 2009, when three beaver families of 11 individuals, sourced from Norway, were released in Knapdale forest, Argyll by the Scottish Wildlife Trust and the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland. This release marked the start of the Scottish Beaver Trial, a five-year research project to assess the effects of beaver reintroduction. Sixteen beavers were released between 2009 and 2014 in Knapdale.[73] A population also became established along the River Tay: this population is of unknown origin. In 2016, the Scottish government declared that the beaver populations in Knapdale and Tayside could remain and naturally expand.[74] Figures from 2022 suggested that there were more than 1,500 beavers in Scotland, with the potential for a population of up to 10,000 by 2030.[75] Further surveys are taking place.[76] Since being officially recognised as a wild species translocations of the existing Scottish population have also been undertaken, both within the existing catchment areas and as part of efforts to enable beavers to establish a wider range.[77] Releases seeking to establish new populations have been undertaken in Glen Affric and the Cairngorms National Park.[78][79]

England

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In England, wild beavers are now present in all nine regions,[80] with a population exceeding 1,000 (2024 estimate).[81] Most sites are recent authorised introductions in large enclosures, but there are established completely free-living populations in the South West. A population of unknown origin has been present on the River Otter, Devon since 2008. An additional pair was released to increase genetic diversity in 2016.[82][83] In 2022, beavers became legally protected in England, "making it illegal to capture, kill, injure or disturb them."[84][85]

Wales

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In Wales a family of beavers has lived since 2021 in the Cors Dyfi nature reserve in Powys.[86][87] In 2024, Natural Resources Wales confirmed there are also a small number of free-living beavers.[88] In September 2024, the Welsh Government announced support for protecting current populations and the managed introduction of more beavers.[88]

Asia

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Fossils of C. fiber have been discovered in the famous Denisova Cave.[89] In Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey, subfossil evidence of beavers extends down to the floodplains of the Tigris-Euphrates basin, and a carved stone stela dating between 1,000 and 800 BC in the Tell Halaf archaeological site along the Khabur River in northeastern Syria depicts a beaver.[90] Although accounts of 19th-century European visitors to the Middle East appear to confuse beavers with otters, a 20th-century report of beavers by Hans Kummerlöwe in the Ceyhan River drainage of southern Turkey includes the diagnostic red incisor teeth, flat, scaly tail, and presence of gnawed willow stems.[91]

According to the Encyclopaedia Iranica, early Iranian Avestan and Pahlavi, and later Islamic literature, all had different words for otter and beaver, and castoreum was highly valued in the region.[92] Johannes Ludwijk Schlimmer, a noted Dutch physician in 19th-century Iran, reported small numbers of beavers below the confluence of the Tigris and the Euphrates, along the bank of the Shatt al-Arab in the provinces of Shushtar and Dezful.[93] Austen Layard reported finding beavers during his visit to the Kabur River in Syria in the 1850s, but noted they were being rapidly hunted for said castoreum to extirpation.[94] Beavers were specifically sacred to Zoroastrianism (which also revered otters), and there were laws against killing these animals.[95]

In China, a few hundred Eurasian beavers live in the basin of the Ulungur River near the international border with Mongolia. The Bulgan Beaver Nature Reserve was established in 1980 for their protection.[96]

Behaviour and ecology

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Further information: Environmental impacts of beavers
Signs of beaver activity
Large beaver dam in Lithuania
Beaver lodge in Poland

The Eurasian beaver is a keystone species, as it helps to support the ecosystem which it inhabits. It creates wetlands, which provide habitat for European water vole, Eurasian otter and Eurasian water shrew. By coppicing waterside trees and shrubs it facilitates their regrowth as dense shrubs, thus providing cover for birds and other animals. Beavers build dams that trap sediment, improve water quality, recharge groundwater tables and increase cover and forage for trout and salmon.[97] Also, abundance and diversity of vespertilionid bats increase, apparently because of gaps created in forests, making it easier for bats to navigate.[98]

Reproduction

[edit]
Sleeping Eurasian beaver in Osmussaar
Eurasian beaver with her kit along the River Tay

Eurasian beavers have one litter per year, coming into oestrus for only 12 to 24 hours, between late December and May, but peaking in January. Unlike most other rodents, beaver pairs are monogamous, staying together for multiple breeding seasons. Gestation averages 107 days and they average three kits per litter with a range of two to six kits. Most beavers do not reproduce until they are three years of age, but about 20% of two-year-old females reproduce.[99]

Diet

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European beavers are herbivorous, eating "water and river bank plants", including tubers, shoots, twigs, leaves, buds, "rootstocks of myrtles, cattails, water lilies", and also trees (such as willow, aspen, and birch), including softwood tree bark.[100] In agricultural areas, beavers will consume crops as well.[100] Their long appendices and the microorganisms within make it possible for them to digest bark cellulose. Their daily food intake is approximately 20% of their body weight.[101]

Fossil record

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Fossils found in the Spanish region around Atapuerca show that the Eurasian beaver was present in the Early Pleistocene but not in the Middle Pleistocene despite apparently favourable environmental conditions. It reappeared in the region during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene.[102]

Conservation

[edit]
See also: Reintroduction of beavers to Europe

The Eurasian beaver Castor fiber was once widespread in Europe and Asia but by the beginning of the 20th century both the numbers and range of the species had been drastically diminished, mainly due to hunting.[1] At this time, the global population was estimated to be around 1,200 individuals, living in eight separate sub-populations.[1] Conservation of the Eurasian beaver began in 1923 in the Soviet Union, with the establishment of the Voronezh Nature Reserve.[103] From 1934 to 1977, approximately 3,000 Eurasian beavers from Voronezh were reintroduced to 52 regions from Poland to Mongolia.[104] In 2008, the Eurasian beaver was categorized as least concern on the IUCN Red List, as the global population had recovered sufficiently with the help of global conservation programmes.[1] Currently, the largest population resides in Europe, where it was reintroduced in 25 countries and conservation efforts are ongoing. However, populations in Asia remain small and fragmented, and are under considerable threat.[1][105]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Eurasian beaver

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) is a large semi-aquatic rodent and the only extant species of beaver native to Eurasia, distinguished by its robust build, flat paddle-shaped tail, and specialized incisors for felling trees. Weighing 11–32 kg and measuring 80–110 cm in length excluding the tail, it inhabits riverine and lacustrine environments across much of Europe and parts of Asia, where it functions as an ecosystem engineer through constructing dams, lodges, and canals that profoundly alter hydrology and habitat structure. Once nearly eradicated by overhunting for fur and castoreum—a glandular secretion used medicinally—its populations have rebounded significantly since the 20th century via protected areas, reintroductions, and legal safeguards, achieving an estimated 1.5 million individuals in Europe alone by 2020 with continued expansion. Classified as Least Concern by the IUCN due to stable or increasing numbers across its range, the species nonetheless faces localized threats from habitat fragmentation and human-wildlife conflict, though its dam-building fosters wetland creation that boosts biodiversity, sequesters carbon, and mitigates flooding. As a herbivorous generalist, it primarily consumes bark, twigs, and aquatic vegetation, supporting family groups in monogamous colonies that exhibit complex behaviors including scent-marking territories and underwater foraging.

Taxonomy

Classification and subspecies

The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber Linnaeus, 1758) is classified in the order Rodentia, family , genus Castor. Its binomial name reflects its historical abundance in , where it was described by in . The species' closest extant relative is the (Castor canadensis), with molecular dating estimating their divergence at approximately 7 million years ago (95% credibility interval: 6.7–8.7 million years ago), marking a minimum age for the evolution of specialized aquatic adaptations in the genus. Eight extant subspecies of C. fiber are currently recognized, primarily differentiated by variations in cranial morphology, pelage coloration, body size, and (mtDNA) haplotypes derived from Pleistocene glacial refugia. These include the nominate C. f. fiber (distributed in ), C. f. albicus (from the Elbe River drainage in ), C. f. belorussicus (Belarus and adjacent regions), C. f. birulai (Mongolia and northwestern China), C. f. brandti (western Siberia), C. f. michauxi ( River lineage in ), C. f. tuvinensis ( Republic, ), and C. f. vistulanus ( River basin in ). Phylogeographic analyses reveal two major mtDNA lineages—western (e.g., French and German populations) and eastern (e.g., Russian, Mongolian, and Polish groups)—with 16 haplotypes identified across these , reflecting post-glacial recolonization patterns from refugia in and Asia. Genetic studies indicate low overall diversity in C. fiber due to severe population bottlenecks during the , resulting in high population structuring (FST = 0.985) but minimal divergence within lineages (mean pairwise differences low across mtDNA sequences). This reduced variability, exacerbated by historical overhunting and habitat loss, underscores the need for reintroduction programs to source founders from distinct phylogeographic lineages, such as (C. f. albicus) or (C. f. michauxi) populations, to avoid further erosion of adaptive potential and maintain integrity. Admixed populations from multiple sources may exhibit slightly elevated heterozygosity but risk diluting unique regional adaptations.

Physical characteristics

Morphology and adaptations


The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) exhibits a stout, elongated body measuring 80–100 cm in head-body length, with a broad, scaly of 25–50 cm, resulting in total lengths of 73–135 cm; adults typically weigh 13–35 kg. Sexual dimorphism is minimal, with the sexes externally similar, though slight differences may occur in cranial measurements. The pelage comprises a dense underfur of 12,000–23,000 hairs per cm² for and , overlaid by coarser guard hairs. Specialized aquatic adaptations include webbed hind feet with split nails for grooming, valvular ears and nostrils that seal underwater, and transparent nictitating membranes protecting the eyes during submersion. The paddle-shaped tail aids propulsion and balance, while chisel-like incisors with hardened orange enamel facilitate felling and processing wood; a lip fold posterior to the incisors prevents entry during submerged gnawing. Paired castor sacs near the secrete , a viscous substance used in olfactory signaling. Sensory capabilities emphasize olfaction and mechanoreception over vision, with small eyes adapted via nictitating membranes but limited acuity compensated by acute smell and sensitivity to underwater vibrations. In the wild, lifespan averages 7–8 years, though some reach 10–17 years; captivity extends this, with records up to 13.7 years confirmed.

Differences from

The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) and (Castor canadensis) exhibit distinct morphological differences despite superficial similarities. Eurasian beavers possess narrower, more elongated skulls with triangular nasal bone openings, in contrast to the broader skulls and squarer nasal cavities of . The of the Eurasian beaver is narrower and oval-shaped, while the North American species has a wider, more paddle-like adapted for . Overall body size is slightly smaller in Eurasian beavers, typically weighing 11–32 kg compared to 16–30 kg for , though regional variation occurs. Cytogenetically, Eurasian beavers have 48 chromosomes, whereas have 40, precluding hybridization. Physiologically, North American beavers reach earlier, at around 1.5–2 years, and produce larger litters averaging 4–6 , compared to 2–3 years and 1–4 for Eurasian beavers. This disparity contributes to faster population expansion in C. canadensis, enabling more aggressive colonization. Eurasian beavers show greater selectivity in , strongly preferring species such as poplars (), aspens (), willows (Salix), and birches (Betula), while avoiding unless deciduous options are scarce; North American beavers demonstrate broader dietary versatility, including routine use of conifer bark and wood during winter shortages. Ecologically, these traits result in more conservative habitat modification by Eurasian beavers, with smaller dams and lodges producing less extensive wetlands than those engineered by North American beavers, whose higher reproductive output and adaptability lead to broader landscape alterations. In sympatric regions like , where both species coexist following historical introductions, no genetic hybridization occurs, maintaining distinct despite overlapping niches.

Habitat and distribution

Historical and current range

The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) was historically native to a vast expanse of , spanning from the and in the west to and in the east, primarily occupying temperate zones with suitable riverine and lacustrine habitats. Fossil evidence from the Pleistocene epoch, including remains from Middle Pleistocene sites in Portugal's basin, late Pleistocene assemblages in , and early Pleistocene ulna fragments from Mongolia's Gobi Altai region, confirms a broader Palearctic distribution during glacial and periods, with the species adapting to diverse fluvial environments across . Intensive human exploitation for , , and —a glandular secretion used medicinally—drove millennia-long , causing progressive range contraction independent of climatic shifts alone; by the , the had been extirpated from Britain, most of Western and , and large swaths of its former Asian territory, culminating in a global remnant of roughly 1,200 individuals across eight isolated populations in and by the early 1900s. By 2025, conservation measures have facilitated recovery to a minimum estimated population of 1.5 million individuals, with core strongholds in (notably and ), , and —where numbers exceed 700,000—and Asian portions of the range (east of the Urals) accounting for approximately 40% of the total. Natural dispersal and protected status have enabled westward expansion from these eastern bastions into previously vacated areas of Central and , though the persists only in fragmented subsets of its prehistoric range without targeted interventions.

Regional variations and reintroductions

Eurasian beavers preferentially inhabit low-gradient rivers, lakes, and wetlands fringed by deciduous riparian forests, where they exploit abundant woody vegetation for food and construction materials; they typically avoid high-velocity streams with steep gradients and arid zones lacking suitable tree cover. In regions like the Nordics, stable populations thrive in forested lowlands with ample aspen and willow stands, while fragmented Asian groups persist in isolated riparian corridors amid ongoing habitat loss from agriculture and urbanization. Post-20th-century reintroduction efforts across have significantly expanded beaver ranges, with programs from the 1990s to the 2020s elevating continental populations to approximately 1.2 million individuals by 2023, primarily through releases sourced from robust eastern European stocks to mitigate early failures attributed to and low in remnant groups. In the , a 2009 pilot release of 16 individuals from into Knapdale Forest, , established a breeding population that grew to hundreds by the mid-2010s, while the 2011 River Otter trial in , , demonstrated viability in enclosed river systems, contributing to licensed expansions and wild populations numbering in the thousands across and by 2025. Successful reintroductions in the since the 1980s have integrated beavers into managed wetlands, fostering populations exceeding 100 families by the 2010s through natural dispersal along canals and rivers. In Iberia, recent initiatives in and , including releases in the early , have shown promise in restoring riverine ecosystems, with initial breeding confirmed in suitable northwestern habitats despite historical absence. maintain large, self-sustaining populations—such as Sweden's estimated 130,000 beavers—supported by protective policies, contrasting with Asia's smaller, declining clusters vulnerable to and .

Behavior

Social structure and territoriality

The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) exhibits a socially monogamous structure, forming long-lasting breeding pairs that constitute the core of units, typically comprising 2 to 6 individuals including the adult pair, kits of the year, and subadults from previous litters. Both parents engage in cooperative care, such as lodge maintenance and kit , with minimal intra-family due to established hierarchies maintained through grooming and play. Group composition remains stable year-round, though sizes fluctuate with and offspring dispersal. These family units are strongly territorial, occupying linear stretches along rivers or lakeshores that are defended collectively by adults of both sexes, with territories varying in length from hundreds of meters to several kilometers based on resource availability and local density. Territories are advertised through scent marking, primarily via from castor sacs and secretions applied to elevated piles (scent mounds) constructed near lodges and entrances, serving to signal occupancy and reduce encounters with neighbors. Marking frequency increases near boundaries and during periods of heightened intrusion risk, such as dispersal seasons. Direct aggression remains rare among residents but escalates against intruders through displays including tail slaps on water, vocalizations, and physical combat involving bites from specialized incisors and , often resulting in scars or injuries that correlate with tenure. Both sexes participate equally in defense, with no significant dimorphism in aggressive . Natal dispersal typically occurs at around 2 years of age when subadults reach , though timing varies with , parental age, and resource saturation, leading to delayed —more common in females who may assist kin or position for . This process regulates via density-dependent mechanisms, where higher densities prompt earlier dispersal and reduced per capita, facilitating saturation without excessive conflict.

Dam-building and engineering activities

Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) construct dams primarily from branches, sticks, , stones, and to impound streams and create . These structures feature a base layer of and stones, with larger sticks oriented upstream and weighted down, followed by plugging gaps with additional and . Dams typically range from 10 to 50 meters in length and 1 to 2 meters in height, though measurements vary by site and materials; for instance, field surveys in recorded dam heights of approximately 1 meter on average. The primary purposes are to increase water depth for predator evasion—such as from wolves or bears—and to ensure safe, submerged access to lodges and burrows, rather than inducing extensive flooding as more commonly observed in North American beaver (Castor canadensis) activity. Lodges are dome-shaped mounds built from similar materials, featuring multiple chambers including a feeding area at water level and a dry sleeping chamber above, with all entrances located underwater to deter predators. Ventilation occurs through small roof openings or "skylights" that allow air exchange while minimizing intrusion risks. In areas with soft soils or suitable bank conditions, beavers opt for bank burrows as alternatives to freestanding lodges; these consist of excavated tunnels with underwater entrances leading to internal chambers, often capped for insulation. Dam-building and maintenance activities are predominantly nocturnal or crepuscular, occurring mainly in late summer and autumn for initial construction, with ongoing repairs year-round to address breaches from high flows or . Empirical observations indicate that individual often persist for 5 to 10 years under active maintenance before potential abandonment, after which they may degrade into natural wetlands. This modifies local by raising water levels and stabilizing flow, directly linking dam integrity to sustained habitats essential for survival.

Ecology

Diet and foraging behavior

The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) maintains a strictly herbivorous diet centered on the bark, cambium, twigs, and leaves of deciduous trees, with willows (Salix spp.), poplars (Populus spp.), and aspens (Populus tremula) comprising 70-80% of woody intake in many populations, as determined by analysis of feeding traces and cut stems. Herbaceous forbs, aquatic macrophytes, and occasionally agricultural crops supplement the diet, though grasses and conifers form negligible portions overall. Beavers exhibit selective foraging, prioritizing plants by taxonomy, stem diameter (typically under 10 cm for efficiency), and proximity to watercourses, with coprophagy practiced to re-ingest cecotropes for enhanced nutrient extraction from hindgut fermentation, particularly vitamins synthesized by gut microbes. Foraging occurs predominantly within 100-200 m of aquatic habitats to minimize predation risk and energy expenditure, involving felling of trees up to approximately 30-50 cm in diameter using powerful incisors, though larger stems are avoided unless smaller options are scarce. Daily consumption averages 1-2 kg of fresh biomass per adult (equivalent to about 0.6 kg dry matter), scaling with body size and seasonal availability, with no evidence of predation on fish, amphibians, or other animals despite the semi-aquatic lifestyle. In preparation for winter, beavers construct submerged food caches of branches near lodges, enabling under-ice access when terrestrial foraging becomes limited. Dietary composition shifts seasonally: spring favors fresh deciduous shoots and emerging herbaceous plants, while summer emphasizes forbs and aquatic vegetation (up to significant proportions in some sites), transitioning to bark-dominated woody material in autumn and winter when herbaceous options decline. These patterns, corroborated by direct observation of cut materials and gastrointestinal rather than scat (which underrepresents soft herbaceous intake), reflect adaptations to nutritional quality and availability, with woody tissues providing sustained energy via breakdown in the enlarged and colon.

Reproduction and population dynamics

Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) exhibit a monogamous , with typically one per family group producing a single litter annually. Breeding occurs during late winter, with oestrus lasting 7-12 days and mating often observed from to . Following a period of approximately 105-107 days, females give birth to 1-6 kits (average 2-4) in May or . Kits are born precocial, with eyes open and functional incisors, but require parental care for several months; they emerge from the lodge after 1-2 months and are weaned by about 2 months of age. Sexual maturity is reached at 2-3 years of age, though most individuals begin breeding around 3 years. Reproductive output peaks in mid-adulthood (ages 5-6) before declining with , influenced by resource availability such as rainfall affecting . Family groups consist of the and subadults, with only the dominant pair reproducing, suppressing subordinate breeding through territorial behaviors. Population dynamics in reintroduced populations show exponential early growth, with annual rates averaging 10-11% over long terms, though initial phases in low-density sites can exceed 20% before stabilizing. Growth is regulated by density-dependent mechanisms, including natal dispersal primarily at 2-3 years and inverse density-dependent territorial contest competition, where higher densities reduce aggression but limit expansion via habitat saturation. Dispersal is philopatric in low-density conditions but increases with family size and competition, constraining recruitment; models incorporating density dependence in survival and fecundity predict equilibrium densities around 0.5-1 colony per km of river. In hunted versus protected regimes, harvesting delays female breeding and reduces overall growth, highlighting sensitivity to adult mortality.

Evolutionary history

Fossil record and phylogeny

The genus Castor emerged in Eurasia during the late Miocene, around 8 million years ago, following the family's earlier dispersal from North America in the Oligocene. Fossil evidence places early Castor species in Eurasian deposits, with adaptations for semi-aquatic life evident by the early Miocene, including morphological traits for swimming and wood processing that facilitated survival through subsequent climatic shifts. Fossils attributable to Castor fiber first appear in the , marking the divergence from the lineage leading to the North American C. canadensis. By the Pleistocene, C. fiber fossils are documented across , from the and in the west to and in the east, reflecting broad distribution amid glacial-interglacial cycles. These records indicate persistence in southern refugia, such as the Danube Basin and eastern European lowlands, during conditions, with post-glacial recolonization northward via expanding riparian habitats. Phylogenetic analyses position C. fiber as sister to C. canadensis, with retroposon and mitochondrial data supporting an Eurasian origin for the and migration of the North American across the Bering Land Bridge approximately 7–8 million years ago. estimates, calibrated against fossil dates, align this divergence to the –early , preceding Pleistocene isolation; ancient DNA from Eurasian fossils reveals three historical mitochondrial clades, with modern low diversity attributable to Holocene bottlenecks rather than ancient vicariance. Pleistocene C. fiber fossils exhibit cranial and postcranial morphology closely resembling extant forms, with no substantive shifts post-dating the epoch, underscoring evolutionary stasis in key adaptations despite repeated perturbations. This stability is inferred from comparative , where fossil and skeletal robusticity mirror those enabling modern ecological roles, though direct Eurasian Pleistocene samples remain sparse relative to North American counterparts.

Human interactions

Historical exploitation

The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) has been exploited by humans since , with archaeological evidence of targeted dating to the Middle Pleistocene, over 400,000 years ago, primarily for and pelts, indicating specialized prey selection by early hominins. Intensified exploitation occurred from the onward, driven by demand for durable used in and , as a source, and —a yellowish glandular valued for its purported medicinal properties in treating ailments like headaches and , as well as in perfumery for fixing scents. By the medieval period, commercial escalated across , with pelts and becoming economically significant commodities, often regulated by local laws to prevent local depletion but ultimately failing to curb widespread harvest. Population declines accelerated from the , culminating in near-extinction by the early , when only about 1,200 individuals survived in eight isolated refugia stretching from to . Overhunting alone does not fully explain the collapse; empirical records show from agricultural expansion—converting wetlands and riparian forests into arable land—exacerbated vulnerability by reducing dispersal and breeding , creating a synergistic effect with direct persecution. Harvest logs from regions like the River basin document annual takes of hundreds of beavers in the 18th and 19th centuries, often exceeding sustainable levels as markets for hats and castoreum-based remedies grew with and trade. Regional extirpations provide stark timelines of this exploitation: in Britain, beavers vanished from southern areas by around 1300 CE due to intensive for pelts and conflict with expanding farmland, with the last Scottish records from the early 1500s to 1600s marking full . In , populations were decimated by the 1820s, with systematic culls in the , , and northern documented in historical accounts from the 16th to 19th centuries, where beavers were increasingly targeted as for flooding crops alongside fur harvesting. These patterns reflect economic incentives overriding ecological limits, as beaver products fetched high prices—equivalent to several days' wages for a pelt in some markets—fueling guild-regulated but unchecked until remnant populations collapsed. Culturally, beavers featured in European folklore as symbols of industriousness and engineering prowess, inspiring proverbs and fables about diligence, yet this admiration coexisted with practical persecution in agrarian contexts, where dam-induced flooding prompted bounties and mass killings as early as the 12th century in England and France. Such dual perceptions underscore the causal interplay between resource extraction and land-use conflicts, with no single factor dominating but exploitation providing the primary anthropogenic driver of decline.

Conservation status and efforts

The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) is classified as Least Concern on the , a status reflecting substantial recovery from near-extinction in the early when populations numbered around 1,200 individuals across relict groups in and . Current global estimates exceed 1.2 million individuals, with approximately 85% in —primarily in northwestern Russia, , and expanding populations in central and western regions—and smaller, stable but fragmented groups in where certain face ongoing threats from loss and isolation. In the , the species remains regionally endangered but is demonstrating rapid expansion, particularly in where populations have grown self-sustainingly without further supplementation. Conservation efforts began with captive breeding programs in the 1920s, notably in where foundational work supported subsequent reintroductions, and have expanded to over 100 sites across since the 1990s, resulting in population growth exceeding tenfold in many areas through natural dispersal and reproduction. Legal protections under the Bern Convention, which lists the beaver in Appendix II for strict protection against deliberate killing or habitat disturbance, have facilitated these recoveries alongside EU measures designating special areas of conservation. In , the Tayside rewilding trial—initiated indirectly via escaped individuals around 2001 and formalized from 2009—has yielded self-sustaining colonies, with numbers surpassing 1,000 by 2021 through consistent breeding and territorial expansion. Genetic management has preserved lineage diversity, as seen in where initial low-diversity founder populations from Bavarian stock were augmented to mitigate , ensuring long-term viability without compromising adaptive traits. These interventions, grounded in data from monitoring programs, underscore the species' resilience when supported by habitat connectivity and reduced persecution, contributing to broader restoration across its range.

Challenges, controversies, and ecological impacts

The reintroduction of Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) generates ecological benefits through dam-building, which creates wetlands and increases habitat heterogeneity, thereby promoting biodiversity in affected landscapes. Studies demonstrate enhanced species richness in mountain forests and higher densities of aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates in beaver-modified areas, with ponds supporting greater biomass of macroinvertebrates compared to unaltered streams. Beaver dams also retain water, elevating groundwater levels and sustaining base flows, which bolsters drought resilience in catchments by providing refugia during dry periods. These effects position beavers as keystone species capable of restoring wetland functions in degraded ecosystems. Negative ecological impacts include barriers to upstream posed by dam complexes, particularly affecting salmonids during spawning; field studies in the UK recorded delayed or impeded movement of past multiple beaver dams from October to December. While some evidence suggests fish can navigate individual dams, cumulative effects in series may reduce access to spawning grounds, prompting concerns over fisheries declines. Beaver activity can exacerbate proliferation through selective browsing that favors certain plants, though empirical quantification remains limited; transmission risks to humans or are minimal, with surveillance indicating no elevated zoonotic threats post-reintroduction. Human conflicts arise from flooding of agricultural lands and infrastructure, with Dutch water authorities reporting escalating damages—costing millions of euros annually to repair dykes, railways, and crops affected by beaver dams. In the UK, opposition from anglers and landowners has fueled controversies over population management, including licensed culls; between May 2019 and August 2021, over 200 beavers were culled in , but 2021 court rulings quashed several licenses for insufficient justification, highlighting tensions between conservation goals and localized harms. Empirical data affirm net gains from beaver reintroductions, yet causal analyses reveal persistent human-wildlife conflicts necessitating targeted interventions like to protect timber and , or beaver deceivers—perforated pipes that prevent damming at culverts while allowing passage. Such non-lethal methods balance ecological restoration with stakeholder needs, though debates persist on scaling reintroductions amid variable site-specific outcomes.

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