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Floride Calhoun
Floride Calhoun
Floride Calhoun
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Floride Bonneau Calhoun (née Colhoun; February 15, 1792 – July 25, 1866) was the wife of U.S. politician John C. Calhoun. She was known for her leading role in the Petticoat affair, which occurred during her husband's service as vice president of the United States. In that role, Mrs. Calhoun led the wives of other Cabinet members in ostracizing Peggy Eaton, the wife of Secretary of War John Eaton, whom they considered a woman of low morals. The affair helped damage relations between John C. Calhoun and President Andrew Jackson, and effectively ended any legitimate chance of John Calhoun becoming president of the United States.

Key Information

Background and early life

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Floride Bonneau Colhoun was born to Floride Bonneau and John E. Colhoun, who served as a U.S. Senator from 1801 to 1802. She was a niece of Rebecca Colhoun Pickens, wife of Andrew Pickens. On January 8, 1811, she married John C. Calhoun, her first-cousin-once-removed (her father's first cousin). Soon after their marriage, her husband was elected to Congress, leaving his wife in charge of his plantation, Fort Hill in present-day Clemson, South Carolina. Within the next eighteen years, she gave birth to 10 children, five daughters, of whom three died in infancy, and five sons,

  • Andrew Pickens Calhoun (1811–1865)
  • Floride Pure Calhoun (1814–1815)
  • Jane Calhoun (1816–1816)
  • Anna Maria Calhoun (1817–1875)
  • Elizabeth Calhoun (1819–1820)
  • Patrick Calhoun (1821–1858)
  • John Caldwell Calhoun Jr. (1823–1850)
  • Martha Cornelia Calhoun (1824–1857)
  • James Edward Calhoun (1826–1861)
  • William Lowndes Calhoun (1829–1858).

Her fourth child, Anna Maria married Thomas Green Clemson, founder of Clemson University in South Carolina.

In 1817, Floride Calhoun accompanied her husband to Washington upon his appointment as Secretary of War in the Cabinet of President James Monroe.

Second Lady

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Eight years later in 1825, Calhoun became Second Lady of the United States, following her husband's election as vice president, serving in that role until his resignation in 1832.

Petticoat affair

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During her tenure as Second Lady, she took the lead in a social war against Peggy Eaton, the wife of Secretary of War John Eaton, in what became known as the Petticoat affair.

Calhoun had organized a coalition among the wives of Jackson cabinet members against Peggy Eaton, who Calhoun believed had committed adultery and was acting irresponsibly in Washington. Historian John F. Marszalek explains why Washington society found Eaton unacceptable:

She did not know her place; she forthrightly spoke up about anything that came to her mind, even topics of which women were supposed to be ignorant. She thrust herself into the world in a manner inappropriate for woman.... Accept her, and society was in danger of disruption. Accept this uncouth, impure, forward, worldly woman, and the wall of virtue and morality would be breached and society would have no further defenses against the forces of frightening change. Margaret Eaton was not that important in herself; it was what she represented that constituted the threat. Proper women had no choice; they had to prevent her acceptance into society as part of their defense of that society’s morality.[1]

President Jackson was opposed by Vice President Calhoun and most of his own cabinet. The result was the resignation of all but one Cabinet member in 1831. It permanently destroyed friendly relations between Vice President Calhoun and President Jackson, and changed the trajectory of John Calhoun's career.[2]

According to historian Daniel Howe, the revolt against Eaton and the president led by Floride Calhoun influenced the emergence of feminism. The Cabinet wives insisted that the interests and honor of all women were at stake. They believed a responsible woman never should accord a man sexual favors without the assurance that went with marriage. A woman who broke that code was dishonorable and unacceptable. Howe notes that this was the feminist spirit that in the next decade shaped the women's rights movement. The aristocratic wives of European diplomats in Washington shrugged the matter off; they had their own national interests to uphold.[3]

Return to South Carolina

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Following her husband's resignation as vice president and election to the United States Senate in 1832, Mrs. Calhoun returned to Fort Hill, resuming her former status as a plantation mistress, leaving the role of Second Lady of the United States vacant until 1841 because both of her husband's two immediate successors as vice president, Martin Van Buren and Richard Mentor Johnson, were unmarried during their time in office.

Her husband died in 1850. In 1854, she sold the plantation to her oldest son, Andrew Pickens Calhoun, and held the mortgage. A year later in 1855, she moved to a smaller house in Pendleton, South Carolina, which she dubbed Mi Casa. She outlived six of her seven surviving children. After Andrew Calhoun died in 1865, she filed for foreclosure against Andrew's heirs before her death the following year.

Death and protracted estate issues

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Floride Calhoun died on July 25, 1866, and was buried in St. Paul's Episcopal Church Cemetery in Pendleton, South Carolina, near her children, but separate from her husband who is buried at St. Philip's Episcopal Church Cemetery in Charleston. The Fort Hill plantation was auctioned at Walhalla in 1872 after lengthy legal proceedings. The executor of her estate won the auction, which was divided among her surviving heirs. Her daughter Anna Maria Calhoun Clemson and son-in-law Thomas Green Clemson received about three-quarters of the plantation, including the house, and her great-granddaughter, Floride Isabella Lee, received the remaining balance. When Thomas Green Clemson died in 1888, he left Fort Hill and the surrounding land to the state of South Carolina to form a higher seminary of learning. The college Clemson established eventually became known as Clemson University.[4]

References

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Further reading

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Floride Calhoun

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Floride Bonneau Calhoun (née Colhoun; February 15, 1792 – July 25, 1866) was an American plantation owner and socialite who served as of the from 1825 to 1832 as the wife of . Born into a prominent family, she married her first cousin once removed, , on January 8, 1811, and bore ten children, seven of whom survived to adulthood. A devout Episcopalian and accomplished , she managed the Fort Hill plantation, which relied on the labor of 70 to 80 enslaved people, after her husband's death in 1850. Calhoun's tenure as Second Lady placed her at the center of Washington society, where she hosted prominent events and maintained close ties to figures like President James Monroe. However, she became most notable for leading the social ostracism of Margaret "Peggy" Eaton, wife of Secretary of War John Eaton, during the Petticoat Affair from 1829 to 1831. This scandal arose from longstanding rumors that Peggy Eaton had engaged in an adulterous affair with John Eaton prior to her first husband's death at sea, prompting Calhoun and other cabinet wives to exclude her from social gatherings on moral grounds. President Andrew Jackson's staunch defense of the Eatons exacerbated cabinet divisions, leading to mass resignations in 1831 and deepening the rift between Jackson and Calhoun, which foreshadowed Calhoun's resignation as vice president in 1832 amid the Nullification Crisis. Following her time in Washington, Floride Calhoun retreated to , overseeing family properties until selling Fort Hill in 1854; she died of cancer in Pendleton on July 25, 1866, outliving her husband but having buried most of her children. Her actions in the highlighted the influence of elite women's social networks on early American politics, enforcing prevailing standards of propriety against perceived threats to marital fidelity and reputation.

Early Life and Family Formation

Origins and Upbringing in

Floride Bonneau Colhoun was born on February 15, 1792, at Rice Hope Plantation in , a Lowcountry estate owned by her . Her father, John Ewing Colhoun, was a wealthy planter who owned extensive rice and indigo properties, including Bonny Hall Plantation on the Beaufort River with over 1,000 acres and more than 200 enslaved people by the early 1800s; he later acquired Keowee Plantation in the upcountry and served as a U.S. Senator from from March 4, 1801, to March 3, 1802. Her mother, Floride Bonneau, came from a of French Huguenot descent established in the Carolina colony. As the daughter of this planter aristocracy, Colhoun was raised amid the hierarchical society of coastal South Carolina, where family wealth derived from cash crop agriculture reliant on enslaved African labor; her father's plantations exemplified this system, with Rice Hope itself focused on rice production in the潮water region. The Colhouns maintained ties to Revolutionary War luminaries, as John Ewing Colhoun had acted as aide-de-camp to his brother-in-law, General Andrew Pickens, during the conflict, fostering a legacy of political involvement and landownership that shaped her early environment. While specific records of her childhood education are limited, daughters of such elite families typically received instruction in literacy, household management, and social etiquette, often through private tutors or boarding schools in Charleston, preparing them for roles in plantation households and elite networks.

Marriage to John C. Calhoun and Childrearing

Floride Bonneau Colhoun married , her first cousin once removed, on January 8, 1811, in a union arranged by her mother that linked two influential families. Soon after the wedding, Calhoun commenced his congressional career, necessitating extended separations from his wife. The couple had ten children over eighteen years, five sons and five daughters, though three daughters perished in infancy. Their offspring included Andrew Pickens Calhoun (1811–1865), Floride Pure Calhoun (1814–1815), Jane Calhoun (1816–1816), Anna Maria Calhoun (1817–1875), Elizabeth Calhoun (1819–1820), Patrick Calhoun (1821–1858), John Caldwell Calhoun Jr. (1823–1850), Martha Cornelia Calhoun (1824–1857), James Edward Calhoun (1826–1861), and William Lowndes Calhoun (1829–1858). Floride managed childrearing primarily at Fort Hill plantation, handling household duties and the children's education while her husband pursued national politics. She supported her sons' attendance at elite institutions like and the at West Point, amid recurrent family tragedies including and later outbreaks that claimed several adult children. Ultimately, she outlived all but her daughter Anna Maria.

Tenure as Second Lady and Social Leadership

Entry into Washington Society

Floride Calhoun entered Washington, D.C., society in a prominent capacity in March 1825, following her husband John C. Calhoun's inauguration as Vice President under President on March 4. Born into the elite planter class of , she brought refined Southern manners and a sense of moral propriety shaped by her upbringing and management of family plantations. Her relocation from Fort Hill Plantation marked a shift to the capital's formal social obligations, where she hosted events emphasizing and among political elites. As from 1825 to 1832, Floride quickly gained influence in the city's social hierarchy, serving as an unofficial arbiter of acceptable conduct for cabinet wives and other prominent women. She participated in high-profile receptions, including those honoring the Marquis de Lafayette during his 1824-1825 tour of the , which elevated her visibility upon arrival. Her role involved orchestrating dinners and gatherings that reinforced traditional values, drawing on her experience as mother to ten children and mistress of a large . Floride's entry solidified her position amid a diverse Washington elite, where Northern and Southern intersected, often highlighting regional tensions. Her emphasis on personal and positioned her as a leader in social matters, setting the stage for later conflicts over propriety in the Jackson administration.

The : Moral and Social Controversy

The Petticoat Affair, spanning 1829 to 1831, centered on a social boycott of Margaret "Peggy" Eaton, second wife of Secretary of War John Eaton, by Washington elite women led by Floride Calhoun, reflecting stringent 19th-century expectations for female virtue and marital propriety. Calhoun, known for her devout Presbyterian faith and adherence to traditional moral standards, spearheaded the exclusion after investigating Eaton's past, deeming her reputation irreparably tarnished by persistent rumors of premarital indiscretions. This controversy highlighted causal tensions between empirical assessments of character—based on hearsay and social protocol—and demands for verifiable proof, with Calhoun prioritizing reputational evidence as indicative of underlying moral failings in an era where women's social standing hinged on perceived chastity. Peggy Eaton, born Margaret O'Neale in 1799 to a Washington tavern keeper, married merchant John Timberlake in 1816; he died at sea in 1828 amid rumors of suicide prompted by her alleged affair with John Eaton, a naval purser and friend who had visited their home frequently. The couple wed on January 1, 1829, just months later, fueling gossip that the relationship predated Timberlake's death and violated norms against hasty remarriage by widows suspected of adultery. Eaton's background as a barmaid and her outspoken demeanor further alienated the wives of cabinet members, who viewed her as emblematic of lower-class looseness unfit for official circles; Floride Calhoun explicitly cited these factors in refusing to reciprocate a courtesy call from the Eatons in December 1829, breaching diplomatic etiquette that required such returns among elites. Calhoun mobilized a coalition including (acting ), , Louisa Ingham, and others to shun Peggy socially, barring her from dinners, teas, and receptions on grounds of moral unfitness rather than personal malice. This "" enforcement of norms underscored women's indirect power in republican society, where exclusion preserved communal standards of honor and deterred perceived threats to familial integrity; Calhoun's leadership, documented in correspondence and contemporary accounts, framed the snub as a defense of virtue against scandal, rejecting Eaton's denials as insufficient absent redemption through seclusion or proof. Critics, including President Jackson—who likened the attacks to slanders against his late wife —argued the boycott elevated unsubstantiated whispers over , yet empirical prevalence of the rumors across naval and political circles lent credence to the women's reservations under prevailing cultural realism that reputation often mirrored reality. The affair's moral ramifications extended to debates on gender roles, with the boycott exposing how women's social vigilance upheld patriarchal order by policing female sexuality, while its escalation into cabinet fractures by April 1831—culminating in mass resignations—revealed intersections of private ethics and public duty. Floride's unyielding stance, sustained despite Jackson's 1830 investigation clearing Eaton, affirmed a first-principles commitment to evidentiary character assessment over political expediency, though it strained her husband's administration ties without altering the underlying social verdict on Eaton's propriety.

Management of Fort Hill Plantation

Responsibilities as Plantation Mistress

As plantation mistress at Fort Hill, Floride Calhoun oversaw the daily operations of the estate, including household management and supervision of the enslaved African American workforce, especially during John C. Calhoun's extended absences in , beginning soon after their marriage. She directed domestic activities such as meal preparation, childcare, and maintenance, often hiring supplemental white housekeepers like Margaret Hunter Rion in 1831 while relying primarily on enslaved laborers for these tasks. Floride managed an enslaved population of approximately 70-80 individuals in the and , who performed field work on around 450 cultivated acres, skilled trades like and , and household duties including cooking and serving. She handled disciplinary actions directly, as in the case of enslaved man Aleck, whom she ordered jailed for 10 days and lashed 30 times after he offended her and fled the . Her responsibilities extended to property enhancements, such as expanding the main house to 14 rooms during her husband's absences and importing wallpapers from and for furnishings; urged halting further additions on April 21, 1838, citing excessive costs and poor quality. She also maintained gardens and commissioned items like a wardrobe from William Knauff. Following John C. Calhoun's death on March 31, 1850, Floride became sole owner of the 1,341-acre , continuing oversight of operations and the enslaved workforce, which she partially transferred by selling 50 individuals to her son Andrew Pickens Calhoun in 1854 while retaining others for the household. By 1865, the estate's enslaved population had increased to 127 amid wartime conditions.

Oversight of Enslaved Labor Force

Floride Calhoun managed the oversight of the enslaved labor force at Fort Hill Plantation, a 1,100-acre estate in present-day Clemson, South Carolina, where 70 to 80 enslaved African Americans performed field work in cotton production and domestic tasks. With John C. Calhoun often absent in Washington for congressional and vice-presidential duties from the 1820s onward, she directed daily operations, including task assignments, production quotas, and maintenance of order among the enslaved population. Her supervision involved direct enforcement of discipline, as evidenced by the case of Aleck, a primary male house slave who fled Fort Hill after offending her and was subsequently captured and returned for punishment. Tensions in her oversight manifested in at least one documented attempt by enslaved individuals to her during the , reflecting underlying resistance to her authority amid the plantation's reliance on coerced labor. Following John C. Calhoun's death on March 31, 1850, Floride retained control of the estate and its enslaved workforce until 1854, when she sold Fort Hill along with 50 enslaved people to her son, Andrew Pickens Calhoun, for an undisclosed sum as part of estate redistribution. Upon relocating to Pendleton, she took select enslaved individuals, such as the house servant Jack, to her new residence, MiCasa, continuing personal oversight in a reduced capacity. These actions aligned with standard practices among Southern plantation mistresses, who balanced economic productivity with paternalistic control over enslaved lives, though records indicate no innovations or reforms in labor management under her tenure.

Advocacy for Southern Principles and Later Challenges

Alignment with Nullification and States' Rights

Floride Calhoun demonstrated alignment with the doctrines of and primarily through her steadfast support for her husband John C. Calhoun's political positions, particularly during the of 1832–1833, when he resigned the vice presidency on December 28, 1832, to defend 's right to nullify federal tariff laws in the . As tensions escalated in Washington over the Tariff of 1828 (dubbed the "Tariff of Abominations") and the Tariff of 1832, which nullified via ordinance on November 24, 1832, Floride relocated the family to their Fort Hill plantation in , amid heated national debates that rendered the capital untenable for Southern sympathizers. This move underscored her preference for Southern sovereignty over federal accommodation, mirroring John C. Calhoun's exposition of nullification as a constitutional remedy for perceived federal overreach, articulated in his 1828–1831 writings and speeches. Her earlier role in the Petticoat Affair (1829–1831), where she led cabinet wives in socially isolating Margaret "Peggy" Eaton due to moral concerns, further entrenched the Calhouns' rift with President Andrew Jackson, whose enforcement of the tariffs via the Force Bill of March 2, 1833, directly opposed nullification. John C. Calhoun later endorsed his wife's actions, which compounded personal and ideological divisions leading into the crisis, as Jackson viewed nullification as tantamount to treason while Calhoun framed it as a preservative of state autonomy against Northern economic dominance. Floride's unwavering loyalty during this period, despite the compromise Tariff of 1833 brokered by Henry Clay that temporarily averted armed conflict, reflected a commitment to states' rights as a bulwark against centralized power, consistent with her upbringing in a prominent South Carolina family tied to Federalist and later Jeffersonian networks. In her later years, Floride's alignment persisted through overt secessionist sympathies, evident at a Pendleton barbecue on November 23, 1860, where she observed speakers decrying Abraham Lincoln's impending inauguration and rallying for preemptive Southern action to safeguard state sovereignty—echoing nullification's logic extended to withdrawal from the Union. She recorded in correspondence: "All were urging the necessity of speedy action before Lincoln is inaugurated, and calling on the young and old to be ready at a moment’s warning," signaling her endorsement of as a foundational against perceived federal threats to Southern institutions, including . This stance aligned with John C. Calhoun's lifelong defense of minority interests via concurrent majorities and state veto power, though Floride's expressions remained more private and familial than her husband's public expositions. Her positions, drawn from elite Southern planter society, prioritized empirical defense of regional economic and social orders over abstract national unity, as validated by contemporary accounts of her correspondence and actions.

Civil War Experiences and Postwar Hardships

During the (1861–1865), Floride Calhoun resided at , her home in , approximately four miles from Fort Hill, which she had sold along with 50 enslaved individuals to her son Andrew Pickens Calhoun in 1854. She hosted her daughter and granddaughter Floride during this period, while Confederate soldiers, including , returned to in 1865 as the war concluded. Provisions remained relatively plentiful in the initial years of the conflict in that region, though the broader Southern economy faced mounting pressures from Union blockades and military campaigns. Fort Hill itself was occupied by Andrew Calhoun and his family throughout the war, with the plantation's enslaved population—numbering around 50—continuing labor under his oversight until . The war's end in April 1865 coincided with profound personal losses for Floride, as Andrew Pickens Calhoun died that same year, leaving her as the sole surviving parent among her children except for Anna Maria. This event allowed her to regain nominal control of Fort Hill shortly thereafter, though the property's enslaved workforce had been freed, stripping the estate of its primary labor and revenue source amid widespread Southern agricultural collapse. Preexisting family debts, which had persisted since John C. Calhoun's death in and were partially alleviated by a $27,000 fund raised by Charleston sympathizers, intensified postwar, as the Calhoun holdings—historically reliant on enslaved labor and production—faced and legal complications typical of defeated Confederate estates. In 1866, Floride pursued foreclosure proceedings against Andrew's heirs to secure Fort Hill, reflecting the acute financial distress of the Calhoun lineage, where mortgaged enslaved property had comprised a larger asset value than land prior to emancipation. This recovery effort underscored the era's hardships for Southern planters, including hyperinflation, labor shortages, and disrupted markets, though Floride's matriarchal role enabled her to will the property to Anna Maria before her own death from cancer on July 25, 1866, at Mi Casa.

Death, Estate Disputes, and Enduring Legacy

Final Years and Passing

Following the conclusion of the in 1865, Floride Calhoun regained control of Fort Hill plantation through foreclosure, reclaiming the family estate that had been encumbered by debts accumulated during the conflict. As the enduring matriarch of the Calhoun family since her husband's death in 1850, she oversaw the property for a brief period, ultimately willing it to her only surviving child, . This restoration marked a temporary stabilization amid the broader economic devastation faced by Southern planters, though the plantation's enslaved labor force had been emancipated, fundamentally altering its operations. Calhoun, who had outlived six of her seven adult children surviving her husband—victims of diseases such as tuberculosis and heart conditions prevalent in the family—resided primarily in Pendleton, South Carolina, during these years. Her health, long affected by the rigors of plantation management and family losses, declined in the postwar environment of scarcity and upheaval. Floride Bonneau Calhoun died on July 25, 1866, at age 74, in Pendleton, Anderson County, South Carolina. She was buried in St. Paul's Episcopal Church Cemetery in Pendleton, near several of her deceased children. Floride Calhoun died on July 25, 1866, at age 74, leaving a will that bequeathed the Fort Hill plantation—regained by her following the death of her son Andrew Pickens Calhoun in 1865—to her surviving daughter, . The estate, however, was encumbered by significant debts stemming from Andrew's 1854 purchase of Fort Hill from Floride and her daughter Cornelia, financed via a bond and that remained unpaid at his death amid postwar economic devastation. Prior to her passing, Floride had initiated proceedings on this obligation to protect the property, but her will assigned the bond and directly to Anna, positioning her to pursue collection while shielding Fort Hill from immediate liquidation. These arrangements sparked immediate and prolonged disputes among heirs and creditors, as the Calhoun family's finances had crumbled under Civil War losses, including the of enslaved people and devalued assets, leaving Fort Hill vulnerable to by 1866. Ongoing litigation at the time of Floride's prompted orders for of estate properties to settle the and bonds, but family members contested distributions, arguing over liability for debts, emancipated laborers' potential claims, and shares in lands Floride had held in Pickens District (later Oconee County). Grandchildren, such as Floride Isabella Lee—daughter of a deceased son—filed suits challenging aspects of the estate's handling, extending conflicts into federal courts. A key contention arose in cases like Calhoun v. Calhoun, where parties debated whether Floride's estate should fully absorb postwar losses, including those from slavery's end, rather than distributing burdens among heirs; courts ultimately ruled against shifting all liabilities to the estate alone, prolonging settlements. These battles persisted for decades, with Lee v. Simpson reaching the in 1890, affirming claims to specific tracts Floride had possessed and clarifying inheritance rights amid creditor priorities. The disputes delayed asset liquidation and final apportionment, forcing Anna and her husband, , to navigate creditor pressures while retaining control of Fort Hill until Thomas's 1883 , after which further challenges targeted his bequest of the for educational purposes.

Assessment of Contributions to American History

Floride Calhoun's most notable contribution to American history lies in her central role in the of 1829–1831, where she orchestrated the social ostracism of Margaret "Peggy" , wife of Secretary of War John Eaton, on grounds of perceived moral impropriety stemming from Eaton's prior marriage and rumored adultery. This elite women's boycott, involving wives of Jackson administration officials, escalated into a broader political crisis that fractured cabinet unity, prompted the mass resignation of seven members in 1831, and deepened the rift between President and Vice President . The affair underscored the indirect political influence of antebellum Washington's social elite, particularly women enforcing class and moral norms, and facilitated Jackson's purge of perceived disloyalists, thereby consolidating executive power while marginalizing Calhoun's faction and foreshadowing sectional conflicts over authority and loyalty. As mistress of Fort Hill plantation from onward, Calhoun managed approximately 1,100 acres and 70 to 80 enslaved individuals, overseeing agricultural operations, expansions, and finances during her husband's frequent absences in Washington. This sustained the economic foundation of a prominent Southern , embodying the planter class's reliance on coerced labor and contributing to the regional system's resilience amid national debates on and tariffs. Her prudent financial decisions, including rejection of Confederate currency during the Civil War, preserved the estate's viability, which later influenced the establishment of through her daughter Anna Maria's inheritance. Calhoun's alignment with Southern principles amplified her husband's advocacy for and nullification, as seen in her hosting of pro-Southern social events and support for secessionist gatherings in , reinforcing cultural and ideological divides that culminated in the Civil War. While her direct policymaking was absent, her actions as a social enforcer and estate guardian highlighted the interplay of , class, and regional interests in shaping early national politics, though often at the expense of national cohesion and through defense of hierarchical institutions like . Her legacy thus reflects the limited but tangible agency of elite women in perpetuating , with enduring ramifications for American institutional and familial histories tied to Calhoun's doctrines.

References

  1. https://www.clemson.edu/about/history/bios/floride-calhoun.html
  2. https://ledger.litchfieldhistoricalsociety.org/ledger/students/497
  3. https://www.americanhistorycentral.com/entries/petticoat-affair/
  4. https://www.scencyclopedia.org/sce/entries/colhoun-john-ewing/
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  11. https://www.clemson.edu/about/history/properties/fort-hill/african-americans.html
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  14. https://blogs.clemson.edu/woodland-cemetery/2024/01/29/black-history-and-the-enslaved-of-the-calhouns/
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  19. https://history.ucsb.edu/wp-content/uploads/Perrone-Chapter.pdf
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  22. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12260832/floride_bonneau-calhoun
  23. https://south-carolina-plantations.com/pickens/fort-hill.html
  24. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/nothing-more-than-freedom/wreck-and-ruin/344D606FFB79C47DAD2FC8CBDF2F1101
  25. http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/Mss256FlorideLee.pdf
  26. https://www.academia.edu/115783758/Litigating_Emancipation_Slavery_s_Legal_Afterlife_1865_1877
  27. https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/134/572/
  28. https://www.thoughtco.com/the-petticoat-affair-scandal-in-jackson-s-cabinet-5225390
  29. https://worldhistoryedu.com/the-petticoat-affair-history-major-facts/
  30. https://study.com/academy/lesson/petticoat-affair-overview-impact-eaton.html
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