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The Forum of Caesar, also known by the Latin Forum Iulium or Forum Julium, Forum Caesaris,[1] was a forum built by Julius Caesar near the Forum Romanum in Rome in 46 BC.

Key Information

Construction

[edit]

Caesar decided to construct a forum bearing his name in the northeast section of the Forum Romanum, and purchased some very expensive parcels of land in that area (the final cost was said to be 100,000,000 sesterces).[2][3] Forum construction began probably in 51 BC, although Cicero and Gaius Oppius were entrusted with purchasing the parcels of land on Caesar's behalf as early as 54 BC.[2] On the eve of the Battle of Pharsalus in 48, Caesar vowed a temple to Venus Victrix, the legendary progenitor of his own clan, the gens Iulia.[4] This original dedication was done because she was Pompey's favourite goddess, and Caesar hoped to gain the goddess's favour before the battle against Pompey.[citation needed]

The forum measured 160 x 75 m, stretching from the Argiletum on the southeast side of the Forum Romanum to the Atrium Libertatis.[1][5] On completion in 46 BC it was dedicated to Caesar and his deeds. As part of the dedication, lavish games were funded by Caesar, indicating the staggering cost and thus the personal interest that Caesar had invested in the project.

Some believe that Augustus furnished the west side with the shops and offices therefore being the one to see its completion.[6]

Purpose

[edit]
Plan of the Forum of Caesar

The Forum of Caesar originally meant an expansion of the Forum Romanum. The Forum, however, evolved so that it served two additional purposes. As Caesar became more and more involved in this project, the Forum became a place for public business that was related to the Senate in addition to a shrine for Caesar himself as well as Venus Genetrix.

Before his assassination, Caesar would have the Senate meet him before his temple, an act deemed very unpopular by the Senate. The Forum of Caesar also had an effect on the Curia, which Caesar began to reconstruct in 44 BC. This reconstruction moved the Forum of Caesar much closer to the Curia. The ten tabernae located on the western side of the Forum and its now close approximation to the Senate house symbolized the unity that Caesar felt between himself and the Senate.

Caesar also placed a statue of his favourite horse in front of the temple. Following his assassination, a statue of Caesar riding this horse was added. Caesar (gens Julia) claimed descent from Venus through his ancestor Julus. The Temple of Venus Genetrix was completed after Caesar's assassination by Roman senators, which included lavish games in reference to Caesar's original dedication of the Forum. The temple was re-built after the removal of the gap between the Capitoline Hill and the Quirinal Hill, under the reigns of Domitian and Trajan; during the adaptation of the gap, a second floor of tabernae was created behind the west portico of the square and a building with pillars made of tuff blocks, named Basilica Argentaria, was erected. The new temple was inaugurated in the same day as the Trajan's Column, on May 12, 113, as attested by an inscription in the Fasti Ostienses.[7]

Art

[edit]

In the plaza of the forum, Caesar allowed a statue of himself wearing a cuirass to be set up, and also set up an equestrian statue of himself seated on a horse with feet carved like those of a human, according to Pliny the Elder.[2][8] In the time of Hadrian, and perhaps earlier, a fountain with three basins connected by low walls was set in front of the temple, with a statue of the Empress Vibia Sabina placed on a base adjacent to it.[4]

The Temple of Venus Genetrix contained an important collection of statues, paintings and engravings. The cult statue of Venus Genetrix was sculpted by Arcesilaüs.[2] A gilded statue of Cleopatra VII was erected, setting a precedent for dedications to notable women in the precinct. Paintings in the forum included one of Medea, mythological Greek heroine of Euripides' play Medea, as well as one of Ajax, mythological Greek hero of Sophocles' Ajax, done by Timomachus. Perhaps more personal to Caesar were six collections of engraved gems. These surpassed in number the collection of Mithridates dedicated by Caesar's rival Pompey. It is not known where or how Caesar obtained these six collections.

Cassius Dio stated that Augustus also deposited a statue of Caesar with a star above his head in the temple, although some scholars believe this was confused with the Temple of Divus Julius in the Forum Romanum.[2] Dio also stated that Caligula added a statue of his sister Drusilla inside the temple after her death.[9] In the plaza, a statue of Tiberius was set up by fourteen cities of Asia Minor to honor the relief he sent them after earthquakes in 17 and 23 A.D.[2]

Reconstruction

[edit]
Forum of Caesar and the Temple of Venus Genetrix, with the Victor Emmanuel II Monument in the background

Following the reigns of Caesar and Augustus, a total reconstruction of the Forum took place, headed by the Roman Emperor Domitian. Why this reconstruction occurred is not exactly known. Under the reign of Titus, a massive fire ravaged the city in AD 80, including the Forum Romanum. The Forum of Caesar was not rebuilt until AD 95, however, indicating that perhaps Domitian had a personal interest in the reconstruction. This could be seen in the separation of the Curia from the Forum, symbolizing a reversal of Caesar's wish to have the Senate closely connected with him. Not much senatorial business took place in the Forum afterwards, except for the secretarium senatus in the 4th century. Diocletian restored the forum after a fire in 283 A.D.[2]

In the sixteenth century, excavations unearthed the travertine and tufa foundations of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, as well as remains of columns and frieze. Andrea Palladio and Antonio Labacco made illustrations of these remains, peripteral octastyle in design.[2]

In late May 2006, a team of archaeologists under the direction of Anna de Santis and Paola Catalano [10] unearthed an inhumation tomb dating from the 10th century BC in the Forum of Caesar, in comparison to the previous five cremation tombs unearthed there from July 1999 to April 2006.[11]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Forum of Caesar

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The Forum of Caesar, known in Latin as the Forum Iulium or Forum Julium, was the first imperial forum in , constructed by as an extension to the crowded to provide additional space for judicial proceedings and public assemblies. Construction began around 54 BC after Caesar acquired the site, was interrupted by , and resumed post-49 BC, with formal dedication occurring on 26 October 46 BC alongside the at its center, vowed by Caesar to his claimed divine ancestress following his victory at Pharsalus. The rectangular enclosure, approximately 115 meters long and 30 meters wide, featured double porticoes on three sides paved in and oriented northwest-southeast, serving as a model for subsequent imperial projects while financed through spoils from Caesar's Gallic campaigns. Later enhancements under , including a curved , and integrations during Trajan's era underscored its enduring role in Rome's monumental civic landscape until partial destruction by fire in 283 AD.

Historical Background

Origins and Motivations

The Forum of Caesar was initiated by around 54 BC as a response to the overcrowding of the traditional , which struggled to accommodate Rome's burgeoning population, judicial proceedings, and commercial activities by the mid-first century BC. Caesar purchased private properties in the narrow Argiletum valley, situated between the and the Subura district, to create additional for legal tribunals and markets, thereby extending the civic core of the city eastward. This practical expansion was financed primarily through the vast spoils from Caesar's conquests in (58–50 BC), which yielded an estimated 800 million sesterces and enabled ambitious without relying on state funds. A central religious motivation intertwined with the project was Caesar's vow to Genetrix, the divine progenitor of the Julian clan according to family tradition, promising a grand temple if she favored his victory over in the ongoing . Made amid the conflict's early stages, this pledge culminated after the decisive on August 9, 48 BC, with the temple's integration into the forum's layout and its dedication on September 26, 46 BC, accompanied by opulent games and spectacles funded by Caesar to celebrate his triumph. The emphasis on reinforced Caesar's self-presentation as her favored descendant, blending with dynastic propaganda to legitimize his authority in a politically fractured . Politically, the forum represented Caesar's strategy to outdo rivals' monumental legacies, such as Pompey's expansive theater complex dedicated in 55 BC, while consolidating his influence during a period of personal ascendancy following and amid escalating tensions with the . Though framed as a communal benefit, the structure's adjacency to sacred sites and incorporation of equestrian statues of Caesar himself shifted its character toward personal aggrandizement, foreshadowing the imperial forums' role in displaying autocratic power—a dynamic later echoed by but rooted in Caesar's innovative urban patronage.

Relation to the Roman Forum

The Forum of Caesar, known as the Forum Iulium, was constructed adjacent to the northwest corner of the (Forum Romanum), physically extending the civic core of northward toward the Argiletum and districts. This positioning allowed the new forum to abut directly against the older one, with Caesar reorganizing the 's northwestern edge to facilitate integration. The project involved acquiring private land at a cost of 60 to 100 million sesterces, reflecting the scale of intervention needed to expand public space. Functionally, the Forum of Caesar addressed the overcrowding in the , which had become inadequate for the volume of judicial proceedings, political assemblies, and commercial activities amid Rome's expansion. Commissioned by around 54 BCE, it provided supplementary venues for these purposes without supplanting the traditional , whose role as the ritual and political heart persisted. The construction was spurred in part by recent developments like Pompey's theater complex (55 BCE), which further strained the central area's capacity. Architecturally, the linkage was enhanced by the , dedicated in 46 BCE, positioned near the in the to align with its processional and political axes. This temple, vowed after Caesar's victory at Pharsalus in 48 BCE, symbolized the personal patronage while tying into the shared monumental landscape. The overall design set a precedent for subsequent , modeling how new constructions could augment rather than isolate from the Roman Forum's established functions.

Construction

Planning and Funding

Julius Caesar initiated planning for the Forum Julium in 54 BC, directing associates including and Gaius Oppius to purchase private properties located between the and the Argiletum while he campaigned in . The acquisition process spanned the initial years of the project, involving the demolition of existing structures such as residences dating back to the 6th to 2nd centuries BC and the leveling of the terrain to prepare the site. This expansion addressed the overcrowding of the traditional by creating an adjacent public space tailored for judicial and administrative functions. The construction was financed predominantly from Caesar's personal fortunes amassed during the , with spoils providing the primary revenue stream rather than state or public funds. Reports from ancient authorities, including and , indicate that land purchases alone consumed between 60 million and 100 million sesterces, underscoring the scale of investment drawn from conquest-derived wealth. Caesar's approach reflected a pattern of leveraging gains for monumental building projects, independent of senatorial appropriations.

Timeline and Key Events

Julius Caesar began acquiring the necessary private properties for the forum site in 54 BC, purchasing land between the and the Argiletum valley to alleviate overcrowding in the traditional forum area. Construction likely started around 51 BC following the demolition of existing structures on the acquired land. The project accelerated after Caesar's victory at Pharsalus in 48 BC, with intensive building activity occurring between 48 BC and his assassination in 44 BC, funded largely from spoils of the Gallic and . The forum and its central were dedicated on 26 September , during Caesar's quadruple triumph celebrating victories in , , Pontus, and , on the birthday of Venus Genetrix, whom Caesar claimed as his ancestress. Although the core structures were sufficiently complete for dedication, some finishing work remained, which was carried out under after Caesar's death. This timeline reflects Caesar's use of the forum as a political statement of his power and lineage, constructed amid that solidified his .

Architectural Design

Layout and Dimensions

The Forum of Caesar was constructed as a rectangular piazza oriented along a north-south axis, with overall dimensions of 160 meters in length by 75 meters in width. This elongated layout extended northward from the , filling a previously private between the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills. The design emphasized , with the entrance at the southeastern end accessed via a monumental triple-arched gateway that connected directly to the Argiletum and the adjacent . The piazza was flanked on its eastern and western sides by porticoes featuring double colonnades, each side measuring approximately 16 meters in width to accommodate the paired rows of columns and covered walkways. These porticoes enclosed the open space, providing shaded areas while maintaining the forum's function as a public square paved in and marble. At the northern terminus, the occupied the full width of the shorter end, its pronaos and integrating seamlessly with the porticoes to form a unified architectural closure. The temple's facade, raised on a high podium, dominated the vista from the entrance, reinforcing the forum's propagandistic focus on Caesar's divine ancestry. This compact yet grandiose arrangement contrasted with the more irregular , establishing a for the standardized, temple-centric plans of subsequent . Archaeological evidence from excavations confirms the precision of these measurements, derived from surviving foundations and column bases.

Major Structures

The Forum of Caesar featured a rectangular piazza measuring approximately 115 meters in length by 30 meters in width, enclosed by colonnades on three sides and dominated at its northwestern end by the . The enclosure included a southwest wall constructed of peperino , standing 12 meters high and 3.7 meters thick, which separated the forum from adjacent structures. The Temple of Venus Genetrix served as the focal point, dedicated in September 46 BCE during Julius Caesar's triumph following the . Vowed by Caesar before the 48 BCE battle to honor as his Julian ancestress, the temple adopted a peripteral octostyle design in the Corinthian order with pycnostyle intercolumniation, built entirely of solid marble on a high embedded into the between the Capitoline and Quirinal hills. Its foundations consisted of peperino and , supporting eight columns across the facade and nine along the flanks, with excavated fragments revealing elaborate friezes and columnar elements. Flanking the piazza's long sides were porticos formed by colonnades, providing covered walkways and supporting the overall oriented northwest-southeast. Behind these colonnades lay tabernae, small vaulted shops or offices with peperino arches, Anio piers, and imposts, some integrated into the Capitoline slope. These structures facilitated judicial, commercial, and administrative functions while framing the temple's prominence.

Artistic and Decorative Elements

The , the forum's centerpiece, showcased lavish construction with fluted Corinthian columns on a high , employing white for the facade. Interior walls were clad in slabs, complemented by carved friezes depicting cupids and reliefs of performing sacrifices, such as cupids sacrificing bulls, underscoring Venus's maternal and generative themes tied to Caesar's claimed ancestry. The featured ornate floral motifs, dentils, and modillions, enhancing the temple's decorative grandeur. A surviving frieze-architrave fragment with cupids, though dated to 113 CE and possibly from a later phase, exemplifies the enduring ornamental style associated with the complex. The temple cella housed the cult statue of Venus Genetrix, crafted by the Greek sculptor , alongside renowned artworks including ' painting and other Greek masterpieces, transforming the space into a de facto museum of . The forum's central piazza featured a prominent equestrian statue of Caesar, symbolizing his military prowess and positioned as a focal point amid the porticos. Flanking porticos, constructed in two stories with internal columns, displayed statues of illustrious Romans, lining the tabernae and reinforcing the forum's role in commemorating historical figures. Additional decorative elements included vivid polychrome painting on columns and walls in hues of red and gold, accented by garlands, as well as a fountain known as the Appiades adorned with nymph statues. The paving consisted of white travertine slabs, providing a clean base for these ornamental displays. These features collectively emphasized marble's luxurious use—sourced expensively to signal Caesar's wealth—and integrated sculptural programs that blended personal propaganda with classical artistic traditions.

Purpose and Functions

Political and Administrative Roles

The Forum of Caesar, constructed between 51 BC and , was designed to alleviate congestion in the by providing additional space for judicial proceedings and administrative activities, thereby extending Rome's capacity for legal and civic operations. Its layout included porticoes flanking the central temple, with multi-story rooms that accommodated court hearings, official offices, and possibly fiscal administration related to the fiscus (imperial treasury), integrating economic, judicial, and governance functions in a cohesive urban extension. Politically, the forum functioned as a venue for public assemblies and oratory, enabling magistrates and leaders to address citizens directly amid growing urban demands, as evidenced by its dedication during Caesar's quadruple triumph on September 26, , which highlighted its role in state ceremonies blending with governance. These spaces supported the evolving republican administration under Caesar's dictatorship, where judicial boards like the centumviri (though primarily in the nearby ) could overflow into adjacent facilities for civil suits, particularly inheritance cases straining older venues. Administrative roles extended to commercial oversight, with tabernae (shops or offices) along the perimeter facilitating banking, record-keeping, and market regulation, reflecting reforms to centralize fiscal and legal processes amid Rome's expansion following conquests in and the Civil War. Archaeological evidence from excavations confirms these utilitarian rooms' adaptation for bureaucratic needs, distinct from purely religious or monumental purposes, though later imperial modifications under shifted some emphases.

Religious and Symbolic Importance

The Forum Julium's primary religious feature was the , dedicated by on September 26, 46 BC, as fulfillment of a vow made to the goddess for victory over at the in 48 BC. The temple, constructed on a high at the forum's eastern end, housed cult statues and served as a site for rituals honoring as the mythical ancestress of the Julian . Venus Genetrix, meaning "Venus the Mother" or "Ancestress," embodied the divine progenitor from whom Caesar claimed direct descent via and his son Iulus, integrating personal familial piety into state religion. This cult's establishment marked a novel expansion of Roman public worship, linking elite genealogy to broader civic devotion and emphasizing 's role in fertility, victory, and Roman origins. Symbolically, the temple and forum projected Caesar's divine legitimacy, positioning him as heir to Troy's heroic legacy and countering rivals' claims by embedding Julian mythology within Rome's monumental landscape. The structure's prominence, with as focal point, propagated the notion of superhuman status, foreshadowing imperial deification practices and serving as visual of his unparalleled piety and power.

Legacy and Modifications

Influence on Imperial Fora

The Forum of Caesar (Forum Iulium), initiated around 54 BCE and dedicated in 46 BCE, pioneered the rectangular forum layout that became the standard for later imperial complexes, featuring a central open piazza approximately 160 meters long by 75 meters wide, bounded by double porticoes on three sides and terminating in a temple on a raised . This design alleviated overcrowding in the adjacent while serving as a venue for judicial and commercial activities, setting a precedent for as extensions of public space tailored to an emperor's propagandistic aims. The inclusion of the , dedicated to the mythical ancestress of the Julian , emphasized dynastic legitimacy through religious , a motif replicated in successors. Augustus directly built upon this model in the adjacent Forum Augustum (construction began c. 42 BCE, dedicated 2 BCE), adopting the elongated rectangular form with ed flanks and exedrae for statuary, while centering the at the rear to evoke military victory and Julian heritage, thus linking his rule to innovations. The axial orientation and enclosing walls from forum influenced the spatial cohesion of the imperial series, treating the fora as a unified ensemble despite individual builders. Subsequent constructions, such as the (c. 85–97 CE), maintained the narrow piazza and typology, though compressed for topographic constraints, underscoring enduring template for integrating civic function with imperial symbolism. Trajan's Forum (dedicated 112 CE), the largest at around 200 by 120 meters, scaled up Caesar's elements—including columned porticoes, a , and columnar monuments—while preserving the processional axis leading to honorary spaces, as architect drew explicit inspiration from earlier designs to project imperial power on an amplified stage. This evolution reflected a consistent imperial strategy: using Caesar's forum as a foundational to legitimize rule through monumental emulation, funded by spoils (e.g., Caesar's Gallic conquests costing up to 100 million sesterces per ), thereby transforming Rome's civic core into a dynastic showcase.

Alterations Under Augustus and Later Emperors

completed the Forum of Caesar's construction in 29 BC, approximately 15 years after Julius Caesar's assassination, by expanding the piazza southward and finalizing the adjacent . These efforts preserved Caesar's original trapezoidal layout while integrating it more seamlessly with the . further enhanced the site's symbolic ties to the Julian gens through the addition of statues, honorific inscriptions, and cult statues depicting and Genetrix within the . A fire in 80 AD damaged the complex during Titus's reign, prompting Domitian to rebuild the forum and between 94 and 95 AD; this included reshaping the rear ridge of the to accommodate expansions. extended these restorations, rededicating the in 113 AD and incorporating Flavian-era elements like a new . He augmented the western portico's southern end with the Basilica Argentaria, a commercial structure, and added a second story to the porticos featuring public latrines, thereby adapting the space for increased administrative and utilitarian functions amid the adjacent Forum of 's development. Another conflagration struck in 283 AD, leading to restore the forum comprehensively; by 303 AD, he had reconstructed the and modified by substituting original white marble columns with multicolored varieties, introducing a more varied aesthetic reflective of late antique preferences. contributed to these post-fire efforts, focusing on the southern and flooring with colored marble, ensuring the forum's continued role in senatorial and judicial activities despite evolving imperial priorities.

Decline and Medieval to Early Modern Fate

Following the deposition of the last Western Roman emperor in 476 AD, the Forum of Caesar experienced progressive abandonment as Rome's political and administrative functions shifted away from the imperial core, leading to the initial dismantling of structures such as the and surrounding porticoes for reusable materials. By the , the area transitioned into spaces for burials, rudimentary housing, and industrial activities like lime production, with marble elements burned in kilns to create mortar for new constructions. In the 9th–10th centuries, a small medieval village emerged on the site, consisting of one-story houses built on masonry bases with upper portions of wood and brick, incorporating from Roman ruins; these structures supported a economy focused on vegetable gardens, orchards, and vineyards. (625–638) repurposed nearby Roman elements, such as transforming the ancient into the church of Saint Adrian and constructing Santa Martina adjacent to it, reflecting adaptive Christian reuse amid depopulation and economic contraction. Over centuries, the forum's remains accumulated layers of debris, soil from River floods, and refuse, gradually burying the site under meters of sediment while it served as pastureland akin to the adjacent Campo Vaccino. During the , systematic quarrying accelerated the site's despoliation, with (1503–1513) designating the , including Caesar's, as a of stone and for papal building projects, often pulverized into lime; this practice drew protests from artists like and , who decried the loss of ancient heritage. By the mid-16th century, the Alessandrino Quarter developed over the area with multi-story (3–4 level) housing blocks featuring modernized floors like pebble and cementine tiles, incorporating further and evidencing urban encroachment. Artists began documenting the visible ruins in paintings, marking an early interest in preservation, though extraction for projects like continued unabated until the site's partial obscuration under early modern urban layers.

Modern Excavations and Preservation

19th-20th Century Rediscoveries

The Forum of Caesar experienced limited systematic excavation during the , as archaeological focus remained primarily on the adjacent , where clearance efforts began in 1803 under Carlo Fea and continued sporadically amid urban development. Sporadic probes and artifact recoveries from the site occurred, but the forum's structures remained largely buried under medieval and post-medieval deposits, with no comprehensive uncovering until the following century. Major rediscoveries commenced in the early , culminating in large-scale excavations between and under the direction of Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime, which sought to excavate the to evoke imperial Roman grandeur and bolster contemporary political narratives. These works rapidly exposed about half of the forum's complex, including the podium and rear sections of the facing the , the basilica's curved , and portico bases, though documentation was often hasty and prioritized spectacle over stratigraphic precision. The 1930s digs integrated the site into the , a new axial road that facilitated public access but also entailed demolition of overlying structures and partial destruction of unexcavated areas to align with fascist . Subsequent minor interventions in the mid-20th century, such as stabilizations, preserved these revelations but revealed gaps in earlier records, prompting later historiographical critiques of the era's methodological shortcomings.

Recent Archaeological Findings

Excavations at the Forum of Caesar since , under the Danish-Italian Caesar's Forum Project—a collaboration between , the Danish National Museum, and Rome's Sovrintendenza Capitolina—have revealed stratigraphic evidence of continuous occupation from the early through the , illuminating pre-imperial residential phases and post-Roman urban adaptations. The project targets unexcavated sectors near , adjacent to the visible forum remains, yielding data on daily life across 3,000 years, including archaic huts, Republican-era demolitions for Caesar's construction around 51–46 BC, and medieval reuse of . Key discoveries from the 2021 campaign include four child burials dated to the mid-6th century BC: three in reused amphorae (ollae) and one inhumation with tile fragments, suggesting localized funerary customs in a pre-urban settlement predating the forum's and . These findings, recovered from layers beneath the forum's pavement, indicate the site was a densely inhabited residential zone cleared for imperial development, with and faunal remains evidencing early agricultural and domestic activities. Renaissance-era strata, probed in the same excavations, uncovered mechanisms for plague management, including a 16th-century sewer deposit with over 30 uroscopy flasks— vessels for —alongside 23 plates, terracotta containers, and child toys, reflecting diagnostic practices during outbreaks like the 1523–1527 epidemics. Secondary waste disposal in wells and channels, paralleling 1999 finds but expanded in recent probes, demonstrates organized containment of contagions in the Alessandrino Quarter overlying the forum. In parallel, Rome's municipal excavations initiated in 2021, funded at €428,000 for 400 square meters, resumed in 2023–2024 under approved campaigns to expose unknown sectors abutting , focusing on the forum's eastern edges and potential extensions of the podium. Preliminary results confirm modified construction phases, with revised alignments in the temple's from integrated geophysical surveys and test pits. These efforts prioritize stratigraphic integrity over rapid exposure, contrasting earlier 20th-century digs influenced by fascist-era priorities.

References

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