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IEC 60038
IEC 60038
IEC 60038
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IEC voltage range AC RMS
voltage (V) 		DC voltage (V) Defining risk
High voltage > 1,000 > 1,500 Electrical arcing
Low voltage 50 to 1,000 120 to 1,500 Electrical shock
Extra-low voltage < 50 < 120 Electrical fire

International Standard IEC 60038, IEC standard voltages, defines a set of standard voltages for use in low voltage and high voltage AC and DC electricity supply systems.

Low voltage

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Where two voltages are given below separated by "/", the first is the root-mean-square voltage between a phase and the neutral connector, whereas the second is the corresponding root-mean-square voltage between two phases (exception: the category shown below called "One Phase", where 240 V is the root-mean-square voltage between the two legs of a split phase). The three-phase voltages are for use in either four-wire (with neutral) or three-wire (without neutral) systems.

Three-phase 50 Hz

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  • 230 V / 400 V (formerly 220/380 V)
  • 400 V / 690 V (formerly 380/660 V)
  • 1000 V phase to phase (3 wire)

Suppliers using 220 V / 380 V or 240 V / 415 V systems were expected by the standard to migrate to the recommended value of 230 V / 400 V by the year 2003. This migration has already been largely completed, at least within the European Union.

Voltage conversion schedule

[edit]
Year Neutral-Phase [V] / Phase-Phase [V] Tolerances[1]
— 1987 220 V / 380 V – 10% .. + 10%
1988 — 2003 230 V / 400 V – 10% .. + 6%
2003 — 230 V / 400 V – 10% .. + 10%

Three-phase 60 Hz

[edit]
  • 120 V / 208 V
  • 240 V
  • 230 V / 400 V
  • 277 V / 480 V
  • 480 V
  • 347 V / 600 V
  • 600 V / 1000 V

One-phase, three-wire 60 Hz (American split-phase)

[edit]
  • 120 V / 240 V

Table 3 1 kV to 35 kV

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Table 3 of IEC 60038 lists nominal voltages above 1 kV and not exceeding 35 kV. There are two series, one from 3 kV up to 35 kV

Table 4 35 kV - 230 kV

[edit]

Table 4 shows nominal voltages above 35 kV and not exceeding 230 kV.

Table 5 245 - 1,200 kV

[edit]

Table 5 is systematically different, as the highest voltage for equipment is the characteristic value exceeding 245 kV. The enumeration begins at 300 kV and ends with 1200 kV.

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

IEC 60038

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IEC 60038 is an international standard published by the (IEC) that defines a set of standard nominal voltage levels for (AC) and (DC) electrical systems, serving as preferential values to ensure compatibility, efficiency, and safety in global power infrastructure. The standard primarily addresses AC transmission, distribution, and utilization systems operating at nominal frequencies of 50 Hz and 60 Hz, as well as AC and DC traction systems, while excluding low-level signal or measurement voltages and internal component voltages within equipment. These voltage specifications are rooted in the historical evolution of electrical supply systems worldwide, balancing technical feasibility with economic considerations for users and manufacturers. Developed by IEC Technical Committee 8 (TC 8), the standard promotes international coordination on supply voltages to facilitate the design and of electrical across borders. The latest edition, IEC 60038:2009 consolidated with 1 from 2021 (Edition 7.1 as of 2025), incorporates updates such as the addition of 230 V for 50 Hz single-phase systems and 230/400 V for 60 Hz three-phase systems, as well as 30 kV for medium voltage and replacement of 1,050 kV with 1,100 kV for extra-high voltage, reflecting ongoing adaptations to regional practices and technological advancements. A new edition is under development by TC 8 to include standardized DC voltage levels for applications like medium-voltage DC grids. It applies to systems above 100 V for AC and above 750 V for DC in traction applications, emphasizing a horizontal approach to that influences related IEC norms for ratings and insulation. Key voltage ranges outlined in the standard include low-voltage levels from 100 V to 1,000 V, such as 120/208 V, 230 V, and 400/690 V for common distribution; medium- and high-voltage series up to 245 kV, like 72.5 kV and 145 kV; and extra-high voltages exceeding 245 kV, including 765 kV and 1,100 kV for transmission. For specialized applications, it specifies DC voltages like 750 V and 1,500 V for traction, and lower voltages below 120 V AC (e.g., 110 V) or 750 V DC (e.g., 220 V) for certain utilization equipment. Adoption of these standards varies by region, with many countries aligning their national grids to IEC values to support in electrical goods, though some deviations persist due to legacy systems.

Overview and History

Purpose and Scope

IEC 60038 is the international standard published by the (IEC) that specifies preferred nominal voltage levels for AC electrical supply systems from 100 V to 1,100 kV and for DC systems up to 3,000 V for traction (with utilization below 750 V). These values serve as reference points to ensure consistency in the design and operation of electrical systems worldwide. The primary objective of the standard is to promote the use of preferential voltage values, which facilitate the interchangeability of electrical equipment across different countries and regions while minimizing variations in manufacturing practices. By establishing these standardized levels, IEC 60038 reduces complexity in global trade, enhances compatibility between systems, and supports efficient engineering and installation processes for power infrastructure. The scope of IEC 60038 encompasses nominal voltages for , transmission, distribution, and utilization in AC and DC electrical supply systems, including traction applications, but it excludes specific ratings for individual pieces of or internal component voltages within devices. It applies to systems operating at 50 Hz or 60 Hz for AC, focusing on voltages above 100 V for transmission and distribution while also addressing lower-voltage utilization . A key concept in the standard is the nominal voltage, defined as a suitable approximate value used to designate or identify an electrical system, which differs from the rated voltage of apparatus that specifies the exact operating conditions for insulation and performance. This distinction ensures that system design references a practical benchmark rather than precise equipment limits, aiding in overall efforts that trace back to early 20th-century international cooperation on .

Editions and Amendments

The IEC standard IEC 60038 was first published in 1927 as Edition 1.0 by Technical Committee 8 (TC 8): Systems aspects for supply. Subsequent revisions followed in 1938 (Edition 2.0), 1954 (Edition 3.0), 1967 (Edition 4.0), 1975 (Edition 5.0, amended 1977), and 1983 (Edition 6.0), reflecting evolving needs in electrical supply systems. The 1983 edition was further updated through Amendment 1 (1994) and Amendment 2 (1997), with a consolidated version (Edition 6.2) issued in 2002 to incorporate these changes. The seventh edition, published in June 2009, marked a major technical revision, superseding the prior edition and its amendments; it clarified the scope, added 230 V (50 Hz) and 230/400 V (60 Hz) values to Table 1 for low-voltage AC systems, and shifted from utilization voltage ranges to supply voltage ranges with a standardized tolerance of ±10% for the 230/400 V system. In December 2021, Amendment 1 to the seventh edition (Edition 7.1) was released, emphasizing coordination between Table 1 of IEC 60850:2014 (on supply voltages) and Table 2 of IEC 60038, along with alignment to in IEC 60050-811:2017 (on electrotechnical for power systems). These updates, driven by TC 8, have supported international harmonization of nominal voltages, notably aiding the European transition from legacy 220/380 V and 240/415 V systems to the unified 230/400 V standard, with completion targeted for 2003 to improve equipment .

Low-Voltage Standards

AC Systems at 50 Hz

IEC 60038 specifies standard nominal voltages for low-voltage (AC) systems operating at 50 Hz, which are primarily intended for three-phase and single-phase applications in electrical supply networks. These voltages facilitate of equipment across regions by establishing preferred values that minimize the need for multiple ratios and support efficient system design. The standard emphasizes voltages up to 1,000 V for such systems, ensuring compatibility in distribution and utilization contexts. For three-phase systems at 50 Hz, the preferred nominal voltages include 230 V line-to-neutral and 400 V line-to-line in four-wire configurations, suitable for general residential, commercial, and light industrial use. Additional options encompass 400 V line-to-neutral and 690 V line-to-line for heavy industrial applications, as well as 1,000 V in three-wire setups for specialized industrial environments. Single-phase voltages are typically derived from the three-phase supply, with 230 V serving as the standard for two- or three-wire systems. These values represent a harmonized progression from earlier regional standards, promoting global equipment manufacturing efficiency. Voltage tolerances for 230/400 V systems are defined as ±10% under normal operating conditions, allowing the supply voltage to vary between 207 V and 253 V for the 230 V phase. This tolerance accounts for fluctuations in distribution networks while ensuring reliability. The concept of preferred voltages in IEC 60038 aims to reduce the variety of insulation levels and designs required, thereby lowering costs and enhancing in interconnected grids. These 50 Hz standards are widely adopted in IEC Region A countries, encompassing much of , , and , where 50 Hz is the nominal frequency. The 230/400 V level evolved from legacy systems such as 220/380 V and 240/415 V, with phase-out of the older values completed in and progressing in other regions to align with the unified IEC framework. This adoption supports the export of electrical devices designed for 50 Hz systems, in contrast to 60 Hz regions where different voltage sets like 120/208 V prevail.

AC Systems at 60 Hz

IEC 60038 specifies standard nominal voltages for (AC) systems operating at 60 Hz, which are predominantly adopted in regions such as and parts of for both residential and industrial power distribution. These voltages facilitate compatibility between electrical equipment and supply systems, ensuring efficient operation in three-phase and single-phase configurations. The standard emphasizes wye-connected systems for most applications, with additional provisions for delta connections where required. For three-phase AC systems at 60 Hz, the nominal line-to-neutral and line-to-line voltages include 120 V / 208 V, 230 V / 400 V, 277 V / 480 V, 347 V / 600 V, and 600 V / 1,000 V. Delta configurations are also recognized at V and 480 V line-to-line. Single-phase systems, often in a split-phase arrangement, utilize 120 V between line and neutral, and V between lines. These values support a range of applications, from appliances to heavy industrial machinery, in IEC-defined 60 Hz supply areas. Voltage tolerances for 60 Hz systems are defined to account for variations in supply while maintaining equipment performance. The supply voltage range is typically +6% to -14% of nominal for most three-phase values, ensuring the highest voltage for equipment does not exceed 127 V (single-phase) or corresponding three-phase equivalents like 220 V / 127 V. For the 230/400 V system, the tolerance is symmetrical at ±10%. These ranges derive from coordination with national standards, such as those in , to prevent overvoltages that could damage utilization . Lowest utilization voltages are further specified, for example, 97 V for 120 V single-phase and 196 V / 340 V for 230/400 V three-phase. The 2021 amendment to IEC 60038 introduced the 230/400 V three-phase option for 60 Hz systems to enhance global , allowing better with equipment designed for 50 Hz regions without frequency conversion. This addition aligns 60 Hz supplies more closely with international preferences, particularly for export-oriented and cross-border . Previously, 60 Hz systems relied more exclusively on North American-centric voltages like 120/208 V, but the update broadens applicability in diverse 60 Hz grids.
System TypeNominal Voltage (Line-to-Neutral / Line-to-Line)ConfigurationPrimary Use
Three-phase120 V / 208 VWyeResidential and light commercial
Three-phase230 V / VWyeHarmonized industrial (post-2021)
Three-phase277 V / VWyeCommercial and industrial
Three-phase347 V / 600 VWyeHeavy industrial
Three-phase600 V / 1,000 VWyeSpecialized high-power
Three-phase240 VDeltaMotors and legacy equipment
Three-phase VDeltaIndustrial drives
Single-phase120 V / 240 VSplit-phaseHousehold supplies

DC Systems and Tolerances

IEC 60038 specifies nominal voltages for (DC) systems primarily as supplementary to (AC) standards, focusing on low-voltage applications up to 1,500 V without frequency dependencies. These voltages support equipment design and system coordination in various sectors, ensuring . For equipment operating below 750 V DC, common nominal voltages include 6 V, 12 V, 24 V, and 48 V (mentioned for completeness in the standard, though not preferred for new supply installations), as well as 110 V, 220 V, and 440 V in applications such as battery-powered devices, infrastructure, and industrial power supplies. For very low DC voltages (e.g., below 50 V), additional guidance is provided in standards such as IEC 60086 (batteries) and automotive norms. In traction applications, such as , nominal DC voltages extend to 500 V, 750 V, 900 V, 1,000 V, and 1,500 V, with coordination to AC systems outlined in IEC 60850 for railway installations. Tolerances for low-voltage DC systems align with general low-voltage guidelines, permitting variations of ±10% from nominal values under normal conditions to account for operational fluctuations. The highest voltage for equipment insulation is defined as 1.1 times the nominal voltage, providing a safety margin across DC applications. The 2021 amendment to IEC 60038 enhanced DC provisions by aligning traction voltage tables with railway standards in IEC 60850:, incorporating values like 1,500 V and specifying lowest/highest limits (e.g., 1,200 V to 1,800 V for 1,500 V nominal) to improve system reliability in electrified . This update emphasizes DC's role in specialized, non-frequency-dependent networks while maintaining harmony with AC-dominated grids.

Medium-Voltage Standards

Nominal Voltages 1 kV to 35 kV

The preferred nominal voltages for (AC) three-phase systems in the medium-voltage range, above 1 kV and up to 35 kV, are defined in Table 3 of IEC 60038 to standardize electrical distribution networks worldwide. These voltages apply to and systems designed for operation at either 50 Hz or 60 Hz frequencies, facilitating and rationalization in infrastructure. The standard specifies two series of voltages: Series I, widely adopted for general distribution purposes, and Series II, used in certain regions and legacy systems. Series I includes the following nominal line-to-line voltages, each paired with the corresponding highest voltage for equipment, which is typically 1.1 times the nominal value to account for insulation design: 3.3 kV (highest 3.6 kV), 6.6 kV (highest 7.2 kV), 11 kV (highest 12 kV), 22 kV (highest 24 kV), and 33 kV (highest 36 kV).
Nominal voltage (kV)Highest voltage for equipment (kV)
3.33.6
6.67.2
1112
2224
3336
Note that the 3.3 kV and 3.6 kV ratings are not recommended for new public distribution systems. Series II includes the following nominal line-to-line voltages, primarily used in regions like : 4.16 kV (highest 4.4 kV? Wait, from earlier: 4.16/4.40, but standard is highest/nominal: 4.40/4.16, 13.8/14.52? Wait, correction based on summary: Highest 4.40 kV / Nominal 4.16 kV, 14.52/13.8, 34.5/36.5, 35/40.5. Wait, the summary had Highest / Nominal. From tool: Series II: 4.40 / 4.16, 14.52 / 13.8, 36.5 / 34.5, 40.5 / 35 So table with Nominal | Highest? To match, but standard lists Highest / Nominal, but section has Nominal first. To be consistent, list as Nominal (highest). So: 4.16 kV (highest 4.40 kV), 13.8 kV (highest 14.52 kV), 34.5 kV (highest 36.5 kV), 35 kV (highest 40.5 kV). But 40.5 >35? The range is up to 35 kV nominal, but 35 kV nominal with highest 40.5. Yes.
Nominal voltage (kV)Highest voltage for equipment (kV)
4.164.40
13.814.52
34.536.5
3540.5
Note: Non-preferred values (e.g., 15 kV) should not be used for new systems. These nominal voltages are exclusively for three-phase AC systems, with no provisions for single-phase applications in this range; systems may be configured as grounded (earthed) or ungrounded depending on local requirements for fault protection and reliability. They are primarily used in urban and rural distribution networks to transmit power from substations to end-users or lower-voltage transformations. Operational voltage tolerances for Series I systems are ±10% from the nominal value under normal conditions. For Series II, the highest voltage is +5% and the lowest -10% of nominal. Insulation levels for equipment rated at these voltages are specified in IEC 62271, ensuring withstand capabilities against overvoltages from impulses and power-frequency tests.

Application Guidelines

When selecting nominal voltages for medium-voltage systems in the range of 1 kV to 35 kV as per IEC 60038, key factors include load density, fault levels, and coordination with low-voltage supplies. Higher load densities, such as those exceeding 2500 A rated current in urban distribution, favor elevated voltages like 22 kV to minimize conductor sizes and I²R losses, while lower densities in rural areas permit voltages around 10-11 kV for cost efficiency. Fault levels, typically up to 31.5 kA rms, influence voltage choice to ensure equipment withstands short-circuit currents without excessive protection complexity, and coordination with low-voltage (e.g., 400 ) systems requires step-down transformers rated for seamless integration, often 15-20 MVA capacity. Medium-voltage distribution systems guided by IEC 60038 can adopt radial or ring main configurations, alongside earthed or isolated neutral earthing, depending on reliability needs. Radial systems, simpler and lower-cost, suit low-demand rural applications with unidirectional power flow, whereas ring mains enhance continuity by allowing alternative paths during faults, as in RM6 modular units for urban grids. Earthed neutrals (solid or low-impedance) limit overvoltages to 1.2 times nominal during faults but elevate fault currents, while isolated neutrals reduce these currents yet permit transient overvoltages up to √3 times phase-to-earth voltage, with factors of 1.9 pu for durations up to 8 hours. Economic considerations often prioritize 11 kV or 22 kV nominal voltages in developing regions for cost-effective distribution, as these levels balance capital investment in lines and transformers against operational losses. In areas with dispersed loads, 11 kV minimizes costs compared to higher 33 kV options, while 22 kV supports growing demands without proportional expense increases, retaining compatibility with existing low-voltage networks. Apparatus compatibility requires ratings aligned with the system's highest voltage per IEC 60038, such as 12 kV equipment for an 11 kV nominal , ensuring insulation withstands maximum operating conditions like 12 kV rms and 28 kV peak. This matching prevents failures in transformers, , and cables, with short-circuit withstand ratings (e.g., 21.5 kA rms) verified against fault levels. Regional variations in IEC 60038 adoption influence medium-voltage design for grid modernization, with and favoring 50 Hz systems at 10-20 kV for efficient urban expansion, while North American adaptations use 60 Hz equivalents like 15 kV under ANSI/IEEE alongside IEC for international projects. These preferences support renewable integration and reliability upgrades in IEC-aligned regions.

High-Voltage Standards

Nominal Voltages 35 kV to 230 kV

The IEC 60038 standard defines nominal voltages for (AC) three-phase systems with phase-to-phase voltages above 35 kV and up to 230 kV, as outlined in Table 4, with 35 kV included as the lower boundary from Table 3 to encompass high-voltage sub-transmission applications. These voltages support efficient over medium to long distances in regional networks, where higher voltages reduce current and associated losses compared to lower-voltage systems. These systems operate primarily at 50 Hz or 60 Hz frequencies and are designed for three-phase configurations to enable balanced power delivery and minimize conductor material usage. The selection of voltages in this range facilitates between sources, substations, and distribution feeders, often stepping down from extra-high voltages for more localized transfer. The nominal voltages are selected based on historical development and practical considerations for transmission , , and international . Two series are provided to accommodate regional practices, with countries recommended to adopt only one series for consistency; non-preferred values (in parentheses) are retained for legacy systems but discouraged for new installations. The highest voltage for is specified to ensure apparatus withstands maximum operating conditions. The voltages are grouped into two series to reflect regional practices (Series I for 50 Hz systems and Series II for 60 Hz systems), with countries recommended to adopt only one series.
Nominal System Voltage (kV)Highest Voltage for Equipment (kV)
3540.5
(45)(52)
6672.5
69-
110123
115-
132145
138-
(150)(170)
(154)-
220245
230-
This range culminates at 230 kV, serving as a practical upper limit for high-voltage applications before transitioning to extra-high-voltage systems above 245 kV for long-distance bulk power transfer.

System Coordination

System coordination in high-voltage networks, as outlined in IEC 60038, ensures seamless integration between 35 kV to 230 kV levels and adjacent medium-voltage (up to 35 kV) and extra-high-voltage (above 245 kV) systems, facilitating efficient power transmission and distribution while maintaining grid reliability. The standard recommends that countries select a single series of nominal voltages within this range to promote uniformity and simplify interconnections, such as limiting choices to one highest voltage for equipment per group (e.g., 123 kV or 145 kV). Standard transformer ratios, derived from the preferred nominal voltages in IEC 60038, enable step-up and step-down operations; for example, a common configuration is 132/33 kV, where the high-voltage side aligns with transmission needs and the medium-voltage side supports distribution. These ratios are selected to match the defined voltage bands, ensuring compatibility across system tiers without requiring custom designs. Interconnection rules emphasize aligning tolerance bands to avoid voltage discrepancies that could trigger protective relays or overloads, potentially leading to cascading failures. This coordinated tolerance framework supports stable power flow between interconnected grids, reducing the risk of widespread disruptions. Voltage levels in this range are chosen with harmonic content, system stability, and minimization of corona discharge and transmission losses in mind; higher nominal voltages like 220 kV or 230 kV reduce resistive (I²R) losses over long distances but are balanced against corona inception thresholds to limit audible noise, radio interference, and energy dissipation. Globally, 110 kV is prevalent in European networks for regional transmission, while 138 kV is commonly used in the , both compliant with IEC 60038's series II nominal voltages (with corresponding highest equipment voltages of 123 kV and 145 kV, respectively). The 2021 amendment to IEC 60038 introduced no direct modifications to high-voltage specifications or coordination practices but bolstered overall system harmony by incorporating updated low-voltage values (e.g., 230/400 V at 50 Hz and 60 Hz) and aligning with related standards like IEC 60850, indirectly supporting high-voltage integration in modern grids.

Extra-High-Voltage Standards

Nominal Voltages 245 kV to 1,100 kV

The extra-high-voltage range defined in IEC 60038 (Edition 7.1, 2021, consolidating 2009 with Amendment 1) encompasses nominal system voltages corresponding to highest voltages for equipment from 245 kV to 1,100 kV, intended for three-phase AC transmission networks operating at either 50 Hz or 60 Hz. These levels support the backbone infrastructure of modern power grids, facilitating efficient long-distance bulk power delivery with minimal losses. The selection of voltages in this category emphasizes compatibility for international interconnections and scalability for growing energy demands. Amendment 1 updated the ultra-high voltage range, replacing 1,050 kV with 1,100 kV. Table 5 of the standard provides the preferred highest voltages for design in this range, paired with corresponding nominal voltages that reflect typical operating conditions. The values follow a progression based on the R10 and R20 series, enabling ultra-high efficiency in conductor sizing, insulation coordination, and overall performance.
Highest voltage for (kV)Nominal voltage (kV)
245220
300275
362330
420380
525480
765700
1,1001,000
Insulation requirements for these systems are determined primarily by the highest voltage levels to ensure reliability under peak conditions. While IEC 60038 also addresses DC transmission options for traction systems at lower voltages, detailed considerations for high-voltage DC are outside the scope of this AC-focused section.

Insulation Requirements

In extra-high-voltage (EHV) systems defined under IEC 60038, insulation coordination ensures that equipment withstands expected overvoltages from lightning, switching, and temporary conditions, with levels specified in alignment with IEC 60071-1 for systems above 245 kV. The basic impulse level (BIL), representing the rated lightning impulse withstand voltage, is directly tied to the highest voltage for equipment (Um), providing a standardized measure of insulation strength against fast-front overvoltages. For instance, systems with highest voltage for equipment Um = 765 kV (nominal system voltage 700 kV) require a BIL of 2,100 kV peak to protect against lightning strikes, ensuring the insulation's dielectric strength exceeds typical surge magnitudes by a defined margin. Coordination with IEC 60071-1 establishes rated withstand voltages that are typically 1.1 to 1.15 times the nominal phase-to-earth voltage for power-frequency conditions in EHV applications, covering short-duration overvoltages while incorporating a safety factor to account for statistical variations in insulation performance. This approach justifies the association of insulation levels with Um values from IEC 60038, such as 525 kV, 765 kV, and 1,100 kV, where the switching impulse withstand voltage (SIWV) for phase-to-earth insulation ranges from 1,175 kV to 1,800 kV peak, depending on the system configuration. These levels ensure coordinated protection across phase-to-earth, phase-to-phase, and longitudinal insulation paths, with the SIWV often governing design for EHV due to slower switching surges being the dimensioning factor above 245 kV. Environmental factors significantly influence insulation performance in EHV lines and equipment above 245 kV, necessitating corrections for altitude and pollution as per IEC 60071-2. At higher altitudes, reduced air density lowers the dielectric strength of air insulation, requiring an altitude correction factor (Ka) applied to withstand voltages; for example, above 1,000 m, Ka decreases progressively, potentially increasing required insulation dimensions by up to 20% at 4,000 m to maintain equivalent performance under standard reference conditions (air density at sea level, 20°C, 1013 hPa). Pollution levels, classified into four severity categories in IEC 60071-2, demand specific creepage distances and material choices for insulators, with corrections ensuring withstand capabilities in contaminated environments typical of EHV transmission corridors. For (HVDC) integration in EHV contexts, proposed Amendment 2 (draft as of 2025) aims to align DC nominal voltages up to ±1,100 kV with AC standards, specifying equivalent insulation requirements to facilitate hybrid systems while referencing IEC 60071 for coordination principles adapted to DC stresses like polarity reversal. Safety margins in EHV design typically provide 10-15% capability for switching surges, achieved through the protective ratio between surge arrester residual voltage and equipment withstand levels, ensuring reliable operation under fault-induced transients without insulation failure.

References

  1. https://webstore.iec.ch/en/publication/153
  2. https://cdn.standards.iteh.ai/samples/14766/0ef9a2c3878e40cca23313e947f90bb6/IEC-60038-2009.pdf
  3. https://webstore.iec.ch/en/publication/72877
  4. https://www.iec.ch/system/files/2025-09/iec_wp_mvdc_en_lr_1.pdf
  5. https://standards.iteh.ai/catalog/standards/iec/bd26a0a9-bf9f-4094-9ab3-0401e5c3ad69/iec-60038-2009
  6. https://standards.globalspec.com/std/14485552/60038
  7. https://webstore.iec.ch/en/publication/12379
  8. https://webstore.iec.ch/en/publication/12374
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  10. https://webstore.iec.ch/en/publication/12378
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  12. https://cdn.standards.iteh.ai/samples/22798/db237ef9f3a948feb5ffec61ad647a74/IEC-60038-2009-AMD1-2021.pdf
  13. https://cdn.standards.iteh.ai/samples/14766/5e8e5d23162846b6881a9e03244e63e8/IEC-60038-2009.pdf
  14. https://www.electrical-installation.org/enwiki/Low-voltage_consumers
  15. https://myelectrical.com/notes/entryid/203/voltage-levels-to-iec-60038
  16. https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/65006
  17. https://electricalconnects.com/frontend/images/design_items/medium-voltage-technical-guide.pdf
  18. https://www.earthsparkinternational.org/uploads/1/3/4/4/13442473/minigrid_distribution_system_voltages_eng.pdf
  19. https://assets.new.siemens.com/siemens/assets/api/uuid:7527313a-e9d7-43bd-9455-0c435fb61310/power-distribution-industrial-plants.pdf
  20. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/50059-002-ld-sd-02.pdf
  21. https://ieema.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/TManual-Chapter-01.pdf
  22. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/corona-voltage
  23. https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S05/is.iec.60071.1.2006.pdf
  24. https://webstore.iec.ch/en/publication/59657
  25. https://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S05/is.iec.60071.2.1996.pdf
  26. https://cdn.standards.iteh.ai/samples/102710/52add2929b9540229c6a4986e8ac3929/IEC-60071-2-2023.pdf
  27. https://standardsdevelopment.bsigroup.com/projects/2025-02048
  28. https://resources.news.e.abb.com/attachments/published/19659/es-ES/4FD3CF5C2FB1/Insulation_withstand_and_altitude.pdf
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