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Katharine Burr Blodgett
Katharine Burr Blodgett
Katharine Burr Blodgett
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Katharine Burr Blodgett (January 10, 1898 – October 12, 1979)[2] was an American physicist and chemist known for her work on surface chemistry, in particular her invention of "invisible" or nonreflective glass while working at General Electric. She was the first woman to be awarded a PhD in physics from the University of Cambridge, in 1926.[3]

Key Information

Early life

[edit]

Blodgett was born on January 10, 1898, in Schenectady, New York. She was the second child of Katharine Buchanan (Burr) and George Reddington Blodgett. Her father was a patent attorney at General Electric where he headed that department. He was shot and killed in his home by a burglar just before she was born. GE offered a $5,000 reward for the arrest and conviction of the killer,[4] but the suspected killer hanged himself in his jail cell in Salem, New York.[5] Her mother was financially secure after her husband's death,[citation needed] and she moved to New York City with Katharine and her son George Jr. shortly after Katharine's birth.

In 1901, Katharine's mother moved the family to France so that the children would be bilingual. They lived there for several years, returned to New York for a year, during which time Katharine attended school in Saranac Lake, then spent time traveling through Germany.[6] In 1912, Blodgett returned to New York City with her family and attended New York City's Rayson School.

Education

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Blodgett's early childhood was split between New York and Europe, and she wasn't enrolled in school until she was eight years old.[7] After attending Rayson School in New York City, she entered Bryn Mawr College on a scholarship, where she was inspired by two professors in particular: mathematician Charlotte Angas Scott and physicist James Barnes.[7]

In 1917, Irving Langmuir, a former colleague of her father and future Nobel laureate, took Katharine on a tour of General Electric (GE)'s research laboratories. He offered her a research position at GE if she first completed higher education, so she enrolled in a master's degree program at the University of Chicago after receiving her bachelor's degree.[7]

At the University of Chicago she studied gas adsorption with Harvey B. Lemon,[7] researching the chemical structure of charcoals used in gas masks.[6] She graduated in 1918 and took a research scientist position working with Langmuir. After six years at the company, Blodgett decided to pursue a doctoral degree with hopes of advancing further within GE. Langmuir arranged for her to study physics at the Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University, persuading somewhat reluctant administrators to offer one of their few positions to a woman.[6] She was enrolled at Newnham College, matriculating in 1924.[8] She studied with Sir Ernest Rutherford and in 1926 became the first woman to receive a PhD in physics from Cambridge University.[7]

Work at General Electric

[edit]

Blodgett was hired by the General Electric company as a research scientist in 1918 after receiving a master's degree from the University of Chicago.[9] She was the first woman to work as a scientist for General Electric Laboratory in Schenectady, NY. She often worked with Irving Langmuir, who had pioneered a technique for creating single-molecule thin films on the surface of water. Blodgett and Langmuir explored the application of similar techniques to lipids, polymers, and proteins, creating monomolecular coatings designed to cover surfaces of water, metal, or glass. These special coatings were oily and could be deposited in layers only a few nanometers thick.[10]

In 1935, Blodgett extended Langmuir's work by devising a method to spread multiple layers of a monomolecular coating, one layer at a time, onto glass or metal. By repeatedly dipping a metal plate into water covered by a layer of a long-chain fatty acid, she was able to stack layers onto the plate with molecular precision. The apparatus which she used and refined is known as the Langmuir–Blodgett trough.[11][12]

Blodgett used barium stearate to cover glass with 44 monomolecular layers, making the glass more than 99% transmissive and creating "invisible" glass. The visible light reflected by the layers of film canceled the reflections created by the glass.[10] This type of coating is referred to as nonreflective or antireflective because very little light is reflected.

While in principle, Blodgett's multilayer thin films had potential for use as antireflective coatings, General Electric never commercialized them because they were too soft and could easily be wiped off a surface.[13] Other types of films employing harder antireflective coatings or etched surfaces proved more useful for applications such as camera lenses.[14]

Blodgett also invented a color gauge, a method to measure the thickness of molecular coatings on glass to the nearest one millionth of an inch. The gauge employed the concept that different thicknesses of coatings are different colors. While examining the layering of stearic acid on a glass plate, she realized that the addition of each layer, about 2/10,000,000 inch thick, reliably changed the color of the plate. Before her invention, the best measurement instruments were only accurate to a few thousandths of an inch. Her glass "ruler" much more precisely showed the progression of colors and their corresponding thicknesses. Measuring thickness became as simple as matching colors.[15] The color gauge was marketed for a time by General Electric.

Blodgett and Langmuir also worked on improvements to the light bulb. Their studies on electrical discharges in gases helped lay the foundations for plasma physics.[16]

Blodgett was issued eight U.S. patents during her career. She was the sole inventor on all but two of the patents, working with Vincent J. Schaefer as co-inventor. Blodgett published over 30 technical papers in various scientific journals. Her research also included the investigation of methods for deicing aircraft wings, and improving smokescreens[10] during WWII.

Personal life

[edit]

Blodgett bought a home in Schenectady overlooking her birthplace where she spent most of her adult life. Blodgett was an active community member and indulged in various hobbies. She was known for her contributions to civic affairs, including roles in the Travelers Aid Society and the General Electric employee's club. Her interests spanned gardening, astronomy, antiquing, and playing bridge with friends.[17] She was an actress in her town's theater group and volunteered for civic and charitable organizations. She had a sharp wit and was known for writing an occasional funny poem.[citation needed]

Blodgett spent time during the summer at a camp at Lake George in upstate New York, where other General Electric scientists also owned property, and she pursued her love of gardening. Even after retiring in 1963, Blodgett continued her horticultural experiments, demonstrating her lifelong commitment to exploration and discovery. She died in her home on October 12, 1979, leaving behind a legacy of innovation, resilience, and breaking barriers for women in science and engineering.

Blodgett's niece and namesake was astrophysicist and civil servant Katharine Blodgett Gebbie. In an interview,[18] Gebbie recalled that on family visits her Aunt Katie:

"always arrived with suitcases full of 'apparatus', with which she showed us such wonders as how to make colors by dipping glass rods into thin films of oil floating on water."

Gebbie often spoke in later life of her aunt's influence by personal example on her choice of a career in science.

Awards

[edit]

Blodgett received numerous awards during her lifetime. She received a star in the seventh edition of American Men of Science (1943), recognizing her as one of the 1,000 most distinguished scientists in the United States.[19] In 1945, the American Association of University Women honored her with its Annual Achievement Award.[19]

In 1951 she received the prestigious Francis Garvan Medal from the American Chemical Society for her work on thin films. That same year, she was chosen by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce as one of 15 "women of achievement." Also in 1951, she was honored in Boston's First Assembly of American Women in Achievement (the only scientist in the group),[6] and the mayor of Schenectady honored her with Katharine Blodgett Day on June 13, 1951, because of all the honor she had brought to her community.

In 1972, the Photographic Society of America presented her with its Annual Achievement Award[7] and in 2007 she was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.[20] In 2008, an elementary school in Schenectady bearing her name was opened.

She received honorary doctorates from Elmira College (1939), Western College (1942), Brown University (1942), and Russell Sage College (1944).[7]

Blodgett's accomplishments were widely recognized, earning her several prestigious awards. In 1945, she received the Achievement Award from the American Association of University Women, and in 1951, she was honored with the Garvan-Olin Medal by the American Chemical Society. These accolades were a testament to her groundbreaking work as a scientist and her role as a trailblazer for women in the field.

Patents

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See also

[edit]
  • Notable American Women by the Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University
  • Busch-Vishniac, Ilene; Busch, Lauren; Tietjen, Jill (2024). "Chapter 13. Katharine Burr Blodgett". Women in the National Inventors Hall of Fame: The First 50 Years. Springer Nature. ISBN 9783031755255.

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Katharine Burr Blodgett

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from Grokipedia
Katharine Burr Blodgett (1898–1979) was an American physicist renowned for her pioneering work in surface chemistry and thin films at , where she became the first woman hired as a research scientist and developed the technique for creating non-reflective "invisible glass" in 1938. Born on January 10, 1898, in , to a patent attorney father who worked for and was murdered shortly before her birth, Blodgett grew up in a privileged environment that supported her early interest in science. She demonstrated exceptional academic talent from a young age, reading by age two and entering high school at 15. Blodgett pursued higher education with distinction, earning a in physics from in 1917, where she studied and held leadership roles in science organizations. She then obtained a in physics from the in 1918, conducting research on charcoal adsorption for gas masks under physicist Harvey Brace Lemon. In 1926, she became the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in physics from the , completing her thesis on charge of electrons in gases under J.J. Thomson. Upon completing her , Blodgett joined in 1918 as a research assistant to Nobel laureate , marking her entry into industrial research on surface chemistry and vacuum technology. After her doctorate, she returned to GE as a full research scientist, focusing on monomolecular films and collaborating with Langmuir to advance the Langmuir-Blodgett method for depositing uniform layers of molecules onto surfaces. Her most celebrated invention was a multilayer that reduced reflection on to near zero, patented on March 16, 1938 (U.S. No. 2,220,660), by applying films approximately 1388 angstroms thick to cancel out reflected rays. This "invisible " dramatically improved optical clarity and found immediate applications in cinema projectors, as seen in the 1939 film Gone with the Wind, and later in eyeglasses, camera lenses, and computer screens. During , Blodgett's expertise extended to military technologies, including non-reflective coatings for periscopes and aerial cameras, improved smoke screens for concealment, poison gas absorbents for masks, and de-icing methods for aircraft wings. She also invented a "color gauge" device to precisely measure the thickness of thin films by observing color interference patterns and on electrically . Over her 45-year career at GE, which ended with her retirement in 1963, Blodgett secured eight patents and published numerous papers, contributing significantly to the understanding of molecular interactions at interfaces. Blodgett's achievements were widely recognized, earning her the American Chemical Society's Garvan Medal in 1951 for outstanding women chemists, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers' Progress Medal in 1972, and four honorary doctorates from institutions including Elmira College (1939), Brown University (1942), Western College (1942), and Russell Sage College (1944). She was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2007, honoring her lasting impact on optics and materials science. Blodgett, who never married and lived independently in Schenectady until her death on October 12, 1979, at age 81, remains a trailblazer for women in physics and engineering.

Early Life and Education

Family and Childhood

Katharine Burr Blodgett was born on January 10, 1898, in , the second child of Katharine Buchanan Burr and George Reddington Blodgett, a prominent and head of the patent department at . Her father was shot and killed by a burglar in the family's home on December 4, 1897, just weeks before her birth, leaving the family financially secure through his estate but prompting significant changes in their circumstances. The tragedy cast a shadow over her early years, and her mother, determined to provide safety and opportunities, relocated the family—including Blodgett and her older brother George Jr.—first to and then, in 1901, to France for several years to immerse the children in and European culture. Upon returning to in 1912, the affluent family settled into a life that emphasized intellectual development, with Blodgett's mother prioritizing high-quality education for her children despite societal norms limiting opportunities for girls. Blodgett did not begin formal schooling until age eight, briefly attending a public school in , before enrolling at the private Rayson School in around 1912, where the curriculum—run by three English sisters—mirrored the rigorous training given to boys and allowed her to cultivate an early aptitude for and physics. Through her family's ongoing connections to via her late father's colleagues, Blodgett gained indirect exposure to scientific environments from a young age, fostering her curiosity in technical fields. The family's privileged background included summers spent in the Adirondack region near Lake George, New York, which encouraged outdoor pursuits and further nurtured her inquisitive mindset during adolescence. This formative period of travel, cultural immersion, and focused preparatory education laid the groundwork for her transition to higher studies at Bryn Mawr College.

Formal Education

Blodgett commenced her undergraduate education at in 1913, where she majored in physics and mathematics under influential professors such as Charlotte Angas Scott in mathematics and James Barnes in physics, who inspired her focus on and scientific inquiry. She graduated second in her class in 1917, demonstrating exceptional academic prowess in a rigorous environment that emphasized women's intellectual capabilities. Her early exposure to scientific concepts stemmed from family ties to , where her father served as legal counsel and connected with prominent researchers like . Following her , Blodgett pursued a master's in physics at the University of Chicago's Ryerson Physical Laboratory from fall 1917 to spring 1918, working under Professor Harvey Brace Lemon on wartime research for the U.S. Chemical Warfare Service. Her thesis investigated adsorption properties essential for filters, a practical application of surface chemistry amid demands; publication was delayed until 1919 due to wartime censorship. This period honed her experimental skills in a male-dominated institution, where women often faced restricted laboratory access and fewer opportunities for advanced study. In 1924, supported by Langmuir, Blodgett traveled to for doctoral studies at the University of Cambridge's , becoming the first woman to earn a PhD in physics there upon completion in 1926. Supervised by Sir Ernest Rutherford, her thesis titled "A method of measuring the of electrons in ionized mercury vapor" advanced understanding of gaseous , building on foundational work in . As a pioneering female student at the Cavendish—where the PhD degree for women was only formalized in 1919—she navigated significant gender barriers, including limited integration into laboratory facilities and skepticism in a field dominated by men like J.J. Thomson and Rutherford.

Career at General Electric

Collaboration with Irving Langmuir

In 1918, Katharine Burr Blodgett was hired by the Research Laboratory in , as the first woman to serve as a research physicist there; she began her tenure as the assistant to , a leading chemist already renowned for his work on surface phenomena. This partnership, which lasted for decades, centered on advancing the understanding of molecular interactions at interfaces, particularly through the study of ultrathin films. Langmuir, who had earlier pioneered the formation of monolayers at the air-water interface, found in Blodgett a meticulous experimentalist whose precision complemented his theoretical insights, enabling rigorous testing of hypotheses in surface chemistry. Their most enduring contribution emerged in the with the development of the Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) technique, a method for transferring of onto solid surfaces to create uniform, multilayer thin films with atomic-level control. Building on Langmuir's foundational experiments from the and , Blodgett refined the process in 1934–1935, demonstrating reliable deposition of multiple layers, which opened new avenues for studying molecular assembly and surface properties. The LB process involves spreading amphiphilic , such as , on a subphase to form a at the air- interface; these are then compressed using a movable barrier to achieve a stable, condensed phase at a specific , measured via a or similar device. A clean substrate, such as glass or metal, is vertically dipped through the interface, allowing hydrophilic heads to attach on the downstroke and hydrophobic tails on the upstroke, depositing oriented layers one thick—typically 2–3 nm per layer—resulting in highly ordered films whose thickness and structure can be precisely engineered. Blodgett's experimental validation was crucial to their collaborative output, including several joint publications on monomolecular films and surface tension, such as their 1932 paper in Physical Review on accommodation coefficients and adsorbed films, which demonstrated the stability of monatomic hydrogen layers on tungsten. These works, often appearing in journals like Journal of the American Chemical Society and Physical Review, emphasized empirical measurements of film behavior, pressure-area isotherms, and interfacial forces, solidifying the scientific basis for controlled molecular deposition. Blodgett's solo extensions of this research, like her 1934 study on fatty acid films on glass, further amplified their shared methodologies. Langmuir's 1932 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, awarded for his discoveries in surface chemistry, explicitly acknowledged Blodgett's contributions in his , where he detailed their joint experiments on thermal accommodation and film adsorption, highlighting how her precise measurements confirmed theoretical models of surface binding and reactivity. This recognition underscored the symbiotic nature of their collaboration, which not only advanced fundamental science but also laid groundwork for practical applications in materials engineering.

Key Research Areas

Blodgett's research on properties centered on innovative methods for measuring and characterizing , leveraging optical interference effects. She developed the "color gauge" in 1933, a practical tool that used the vivid interference colors produced by light reflecting off thin films of stearate to precisely quantify film thickness down to one microinch, enabling accurate assessment of deposition on solid surfaces. This invention facilitated empirical studies of film uniformity and stability, providing a standardized approach for physicists and chemists working with ultrathin coatings. In her investigations of adsorption and surface phenomena, Blodgett examined the behavior of oil films spreading on water surfaces, analyzing how these monolayers influenced and potential applications in . Her 1934 study on interference colors in oil films demonstrated that specific oils, such as , formed stable, uniform layers approximately one thick, offering insights into adsorption dynamics and the role of surface films in reducing for mechanical systems. These findings contributed to a deeper understanding of how molecular interactions at interfaces affect practical material performance. Throughout her career, Blodgett authored over 30 technical papers in leading journals, including and the , where she presented detailed empirical evidence on stability, adsorption mechanisms, and surface electrical properties. These publications emphasized experimental techniques for quantifying film behavior and influenced subsequent research in . Her efforts built upon the Langmuir-Blodgett technique as a foundational tool for controlled film assembly. As a key member of GE's interdisciplinary teams, Blodgett applied physical principles to industrial challenges, such as enhancing material durability through optimized surface coatings that resisted .

Major Inventions and Contributions

Non-Reflecting Glass

Katharine Burr Blodgett developed non-reflecting glass through her pioneering research on Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films, building on experiments conducted in the early at . In 1934, she demonstrated the ability to transfer stable multilayer films of molecules, such as barium stearate, onto glass substrates by repeatedly dipping them in a solution, allowing precise control over film thickness at the molecular level. These experiments utilized optical interference patterns, similar to , to measure and verify the uniformity of even-numbered layers, which eliminated unwanted interference fringes and improved the optical clarity of coated glass. The mechanism of the non-reflecting coating relies on constructive layering of LB films to achieve destructive interference of reflected waves. Blodgett applied multiple layers—typically 44 in total—of soap-like molecules like stearate, each approximately 25 angstroms thick, to create a with an optical thickness equivalent to a quarter of visible (around 550 nanometers). This design ensures that the of the coating (approximately 1.25–1.3) forms a between air (1.0) and (1.52), causing reflected rays from the air-film and film- interfaces to be out of phase by 180 degrees, thereby canceling each other out and minimizing reflection. As a result, transmission through the coated increased from about 91.5% (reflecting roughly 8.5%) to over 99%, rendering the glass effectively "invisible." Blodgett filed for a patent on this invention in June 1938, receiving U.S. Patent 2,220,861 for "Reduction of Surface Reflection" in November 1940, which detailed the use of multiple LB film layers to achieve low reflectance on optical surfaces. Initial applications focused on everyday and scientific optics, including eyeglasses to reduce glare, camera lenses for sharper images in cinematography, and microscope objectives for enhanced resolution without light loss. This breakthrough marked the first practical anti-reflective coating for glass, fundamentally revolutionizing optical instruments by eliminating surface reflections that had previously limited visibility and efficiency.

Other Innovations

In addition to her pioneering work on optical films, Blodgett developed a color gauge in 1935 to precisely measure the thickness of thin coatings on surfaces, enabling accurate assessment down to one millionth of an inch by comparing reflected colors from known film thicknesses. This device, rooted in her thin-film research, facilitated advancements in surface chemistry applications across industries. During World War II, Blodgett contributed to military efforts by enhancing poison gas absorbents through the application of activated charcoal films, building on her earlier studies of charcoal's adsorption properties to improve filtration efficiency in protective equipment. She also devised a method for de-icing aircraft wings using specialized coatings that prevented ice accumulation, significantly boosting aviation safety in adverse weather conditions. Furthermore, her innovations in smoke screen technology allowed for more effective camouflage by vaporizing small quantities of oil—such as two quarts—to generate dense, persistent clouds covering several acres, aiding Allied forces in concealing movements. Blodgett secured eight U.S. patents over her career, many stemming from her film-based techniques, including improvements to electron emission in vacuum tubes during that enhanced device performance in electrical applications. Post-war, her film technologies found practical use in refining projectors by reducing lens distortions for clearer projections and in automotive windshields to minimize glare and improve visibility. These contributions extended her research into and aviation, much of which remained classified during the wartime period, underscoring her impact on practical engineering solutions.

Personal Life and Legacy

Later Years and Interests

After retiring from in 1963 following a 45-year career, Katharine Burr Blodgett continued to pursue her personal interests with enthusiasm. She remained in , where she had spent much of her adult life, residing in a brick house at 18 North Church Street that reflected her modest and unassuming lifestyle. Never married and without children, Blodgett maintained close ties to her community, including involvement with the Presbyterian church and serving as treasurer of the local Travelers Aid Society. She also owned a vacation home on Lake George in the , providing a retreat for relaxation amid natural surroundings. Blodgett's hobbies provided a counterbalance to her scientific pursuits, emphasizing her appreciation for , , and . Gardening was a particular passion; she conducted informal horticultural experiments in her yard, viewing it as her favorite form of relaxation and a way to engage with the directly. She enjoyed stargazing as an avid amateur astronomer, collecting antiques during shopping outings, and playing bridge with friends. Additionally, Blodgett participated in local theater by acting in productions with the Schenectady Civic Players and wrote humorous poems, such as one playfully describing the properties of polyvinyl. Her commitment to environmental causes was evident in her active role as a conservationist, aligning with her lifelong affinity for the outdoors. In reflecting on her research approach later in life, Blodgett emphasized persistence and , stating, "You keep barking up so many wrong trees in research… I think there is an element of luck if you happen to bark up the right one." She passed away at her Schenectady home on October 12, 1979, at the age of 81, from natural causes. Blodgett was buried at in .

Awards and Recognition

Throughout her career, Katharine Burr Blodgett received several honors that underscored her pioneering role as a in industrial , particularly in surface chemistry and . In 1945, she was awarded the American Association of University Women's Annual Achievement Award, recognizing her groundbreaking research on thin films and their applications. This accolade highlighted the rarity of women's advancements in male-dominated fields at the time, positioning Blodgett as a for . Blodgett's contributions earned her multiple honorary Doctor of Science degrees, affirming her impact on physics and chemistry. She received such honors from Elmira College in 1939, Western College for Women in 1942, Brown University in 1942, and Russell Sage College in 1944. These degrees celebrated her innovative work, including the development of non-reflecting glass, and helped elevate visibility for women in technical professions. In 1951, Blodgett became the first industrial scientist to receive the American Chemical Society's Francis Garvan Medal, awarded for distinguished service to chemistry by women. The medal specifically acknowledged her advancements in monolayer films, which had broad industrial implications, and marked a milestone in recognizing women's technical expertise outside academia. That year also saw her featured in media, including a Time magazine article on her "invisible glass" invention, which brought public attention to her role in reducing light reflection for optical instruments. Posthumously, Blodgett's legacy continued to be honored for its enduring influence on materials science and optics, particularly in amplifying underrepresented women's voices in STEM. In 2007, she was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame for her work on molecular films that enabled non-reflective coatings still used in lenses and displays today. In 1972, prior to her death, she received the Photographic Society of America's Progress Medal for contributions to imaging technology. These recognitions emphasized how her innovations bridged fundamental research and practical applications, inspiring future generations of women in science.

References

  1. https://www.invent.org/inductees/katharine-burr-blodgett
  2. https://www.sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/the-invisible-woman/
  3. https://www.famousscientists.org/katharine-burr-blodgett/
  4. https://axial.acs.org/physical-chemistry/the-remarkable-life-and-work-of-katharine-burr-blodgett-1898-1979
  5. https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200703/history.cfm
  6. https://scientificwomen.net/women/blodgett-katharine-17
  7. https://www.nytimes.com/1897/12/04/archives/george-r-blodgett-shot-murderous-attack-of-a-burglar-on-the-famous.html
  8. https://edisontechcenter.org/Blodgett.html
  9. https://www.brynmawr.edu/news/scientist-katharine-burr-blodgett-class-1917-featured-podcast
  10. https://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/news/the-invisible-glass-legacy-of-katharine-burr-blodgett/
  11. https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/irving-langmuir-and-katharine-burr-blodgett/
  12. https://www.biolinscientific.com/blog/history-of-langmuir-and-langmuir-blodgett-films
  13. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11207038/
  14. https://www.nanoscience.com/techniques/langmuir-films/
  15. https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/langmuir-lecture.pdf
  16. https://cdm16694.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/api/collection/p16694coll20/id/15621/download
  17. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ja01309a011
  18. https://patents.google.com/patent/US2220861A/en
  19. https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/katherine-blodgett
  20. https://www.encyclopedia.com/women/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/blodgett-katharine-burr-1898-1979
  21. https://mountauburn.org/notable-residents/katharine-burr-blodgett-1898-1979/
  22. https://www.nytimes.com/1945/03/29/archives/dr-blodgett-wins-achievement-prize-research-expert-in-films-is.html
  23. https://ethw.org/Katherine_Burr_Blodgett
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