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Liturgical struggle
The Liturgical Struggle (Swedish: Liturgiska striden) was the name for the period from 1574 until 1593 in Sweden, when there was a struggle about the confession of faith and liturgy of the Church of Sweden, brought about by the attempts of King John III of Sweden to make the Swedish church take a mediating position between Catholicism and Protestantism by holding only certain doctrines and practices which could be established immediately in either the Word of God or patristic writings, similar to what had once been imposed on the Lutheran areas in Germany during the Augsburg Interim. The struggle began in 1574, when the king introduced some new rules in the liturgy which were not by Lutheran doctrine and practice, followed by his publication of the Liturgia Svecanae Ecclesiae catholicae & orthodoxae conformia commonly called the "Red Book", which re-introduced a number of Catholic customs. The Liturgical Struggle ended with the Lutheran confession of faith at the Uppsala Synod in 1593.
A similar idea had already appeared abroad and had its most prominent advocate in the Dutch theologian George Cassander (d. 1566). John III had, through his theological studies during his incarceration at Gripsholm (1563–1567), become acquainted with the same line of thinking, and in his secretary Petrus Fecht he had a good assistant in the endeavor to restore "the apostolic and Catholic faith of the early church."
It began with the fact that, at a Riksdag in 1574, despite objections, the king established a number of minor rules of conduct concerning the service. In 1575 he got the church's chief men to adopt the "new ordinance" (Nova Ordinantia), which in several points contradicted pure Lutheranism. The theologians from Uppsala were given a special statement on this ordinance: they considered that it contained the Church's approved doctrine, "only the right was understood," and that the ceremonies prescribed therein could well be accepted, "unless it aroused opposition." The same year, the Charter was also conditionally approved by the priests who met and the bishops of Linköping and Västerås were consecrated to their offices.
In 1576 the schism broke out completely, since the King had in the beginning of the same year, printed and distributed a new worship order, It was called the Liturgia Suecanæ Ecclesiæ catholicæ & orthodoxæ conformis. Because of the color of the printed copies, it was called the Red Book. He had written it together with Fecht. (The book's title and enterprise, as well as the regulations for the priest, annotations and notes were written in Latin, but the liturgy itself was written in both Latin and Swedish.) This order of service was different from the other, less ceremonial Swedish order already in use and adopted some of the content of the Tridentine Mass, including the use of the sign of the cross. However certain aspects which were considered offensive to Protestant eyes were removed. The struggle was mainly conducted over this order of service; hence even the very name of the struggle. The struggle was especially significant from 1576–1580 due to John III's negotiations on how to approach the Roman Catholic Church.
The first resistance to "new ordinance" and the liturgy came from the brother of Duke Charles IX. He stated from the outset that he was determined to maintain the church use introduced during Gustav Vasa's time. Later, in September 1576, the Duchy's residents also declared themselves wanting to stick to the old Lutheran liturgy. At the same time, anxiety began to be felt in the capital. Stockholm's vicar, Olaus Petri Medelpadius, the principal of the city's school, Abrahamus Andreae Angermannus, and two chaplains were required to observe the new order on September 7. When they not only failed to do so, but also gave a written objection to the liturgy, Olaus Petri was transferred to a position as preacher in Uppsala and Abrahamus as preacher in Öregrund, both under the archbishop's special supervision. Chaplain Peter Eriksson fled to Duke Charles for protection, but the other chaplain had to stay in Stockholm because of his old age.
At Christmas 1576, the battle flared up in Uppsala, where Archbishop Laurentius banned the new preacher and professor Petrus Jonae (who was known for his fiery sermons) to practice the priesthood. In January 1577, Peter Jonae and his brother Olaus Luth were called by the king to Stockholm. Religious talks took place, with the Jesuit Laurentius Norvegus ("Klosterlasse") arguing the case for the new liturgy. But the two maintained their protests, and the judge in Västerås, Salomon Birgeri, was led to support the liturgy. He was appointed to serve in Stockholm and joined the resistance. However, the king was negotiating in the villages about the liturgy's recognition.
When a parliament was announced in Stockholm to discuss the issue, the Uppsala professors were taken away in custody to Svartsjö. Salomo Birgeri, Olaus Petri, and Abrahamus Angermannus, (who later turned out to be indifferent) were sent to the farm in Häringe, Södertörn. At the meeting of the stations, the worldly positions immediately left their approval for the new order of service on February 11. The clergy, on the other hand, signed their consent only five days later, after a persistent resistance by the Linköping bishop Martinus Olai Gestricius. He assented, but included a reference to a declaration demanded by the conflict over the disputed book. Afterwards, the prisoners were recovered, but could not now be induced to remission. The two professors then had to return to Uppsala; Abrahamus Angermannus was sent as a vicar to Saltvik in Åland, and Olaus Petri had to settle on a farm in Roslagen. Salomo Birgeri was still held for some time longer, but then returned to his position in Västerås.
Despite the enforced decision, however, no significant enthusiasm for the actual introduction of the liturgy was noticed in Västergötland. Additionally, the new order of service came into question in Bishop Martin's Linköping's diocese of and in Strängnäs diocese, where Duke Karl's will was decisive. The fact that the Jesuits arrived in Sweden and publicly supported the liturgy led many who were previously supportive to oppose the new program. It seemed ominous, and even Archbishop Laurentius Petri (died February 12, 1579) turned during his last year of life against the new order of service.
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Liturgical struggle
The Liturgical Struggle (Swedish: Liturgiska striden) was the name for the period from 1574 until 1593 in Sweden, when there was a struggle about the confession of faith and liturgy of the Church of Sweden, brought about by the attempts of King John III of Sweden to make the Swedish church take a mediating position between Catholicism and Protestantism by holding only certain doctrines and practices which could be established immediately in either the Word of God or patristic writings, similar to what had once been imposed on the Lutheran areas in Germany during the Augsburg Interim. The struggle began in 1574, when the king introduced some new rules in the liturgy which were not by Lutheran doctrine and practice, followed by his publication of the Liturgia Svecanae Ecclesiae catholicae & orthodoxae conformia commonly called the "Red Book", which re-introduced a number of Catholic customs. The Liturgical Struggle ended with the Lutheran confession of faith at the Uppsala Synod in 1593.
A similar idea had already appeared abroad and had its most prominent advocate in the Dutch theologian George Cassander (d. 1566). John III had, through his theological studies during his incarceration at Gripsholm (1563–1567), become acquainted with the same line of thinking, and in his secretary Petrus Fecht he had a good assistant in the endeavor to restore "the apostolic and Catholic faith of the early church."
It began with the fact that, at a Riksdag in 1574, despite objections, the king established a number of minor rules of conduct concerning the service. In 1575 he got the church's chief men to adopt the "new ordinance" (Nova Ordinantia), which in several points contradicted pure Lutheranism. The theologians from Uppsala were given a special statement on this ordinance: they considered that it contained the Church's approved doctrine, "only the right was understood," and that the ceremonies prescribed therein could well be accepted, "unless it aroused opposition." The same year, the Charter was also conditionally approved by the priests who met and the bishops of Linköping and Västerås were consecrated to their offices.
In 1576 the schism broke out completely, since the King had in the beginning of the same year, printed and distributed a new worship order, It was called the Liturgia Suecanæ Ecclesiæ catholicæ & orthodoxæ conformis. Because of the color of the printed copies, it was called the Red Book. He had written it together with Fecht. (The book's title and enterprise, as well as the regulations for the priest, annotations and notes were written in Latin, but the liturgy itself was written in both Latin and Swedish.) This order of service was different from the other, less ceremonial Swedish order already in use and adopted some of the content of the Tridentine Mass, including the use of the sign of the cross. However certain aspects which were considered offensive to Protestant eyes were removed. The struggle was mainly conducted over this order of service; hence even the very name of the struggle. The struggle was especially significant from 1576–1580 due to John III's negotiations on how to approach the Roman Catholic Church.
The first resistance to "new ordinance" and the liturgy came from the brother of Duke Charles IX. He stated from the outset that he was determined to maintain the church use introduced during Gustav Vasa's time. Later, in September 1576, the Duchy's residents also declared themselves wanting to stick to the old Lutheran liturgy. At the same time, anxiety began to be felt in the capital. Stockholm's vicar, Olaus Petri Medelpadius, the principal of the city's school, Abrahamus Andreae Angermannus, and two chaplains were required to observe the new order on September 7. When they not only failed to do so, but also gave a written objection to the liturgy, Olaus Petri was transferred to a position as preacher in Uppsala and Abrahamus as preacher in Öregrund, both under the archbishop's special supervision. Chaplain Peter Eriksson fled to Duke Charles for protection, but the other chaplain had to stay in Stockholm because of his old age.
At Christmas 1576, the battle flared up in Uppsala, where Archbishop Laurentius banned the new preacher and professor Petrus Jonae (who was known for his fiery sermons) to practice the priesthood. In January 1577, Peter Jonae and his brother Olaus Luth were called by the king to Stockholm. Religious talks took place, with the Jesuit Laurentius Norvegus ("Klosterlasse") arguing the case for the new liturgy. But the two maintained their protests, and the judge in Västerås, Salomon Birgeri, was led to support the liturgy. He was appointed to serve in Stockholm and joined the resistance. However, the king was negotiating in the villages about the liturgy's recognition.
When a parliament was announced in Stockholm to discuss the issue, the Uppsala professors were taken away in custody to Svartsjö. Salomo Birgeri, Olaus Petri, and Abrahamus Angermannus, (who later turned out to be indifferent) were sent to the farm in Häringe, Södertörn. At the meeting of the stations, the worldly positions immediately left their approval for the new order of service on February 11. The clergy, on the other hand, signed their consent only five days later, after a persistent resistance by the Linköping bishop Martinus Olai Gestricius. He assented, but included a reference to a declaration demanded by the conflict over the disputed book. Afterwards, the prisoners were recovered, but could not now be induced to remission. The two professors then had to return to Uppsala; Abrahamus Angermannus was sent as a vicar to Saltvik in Åland, and Olaus Petri had to settle on a farm in Roslagen. Salomo Birgeri was still held for some time longer, but then returned to his position in Västerås.
Despite the enforced decision, however, no significant enthusiasm for the actual introduction of the liturgy was noticed in Västergötland. Additionally, the new order of service came into question in Bishop Martin's Linköping's diocese of and in Strängnäs diocese, where Duke Karl's will was decisive. The fact that the Jesuits arrived in Sweden and publicly supported the liturgy led many who were previously supportive to oppose the new program. It seemed ominous, and even Archbishop Laurentius Petri (died February 12, 1579) turned during his last year of life against the new order of service.