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MSISDN (/ˈɛm ɛs aɪ ɛs diː ɛn/) is a number uniquely identifying a subscription in a Global System for Mobile communications or a Universal Mobile Telecommunications System mobile network. It is the mapping of the telephone number to the subscriber identity module in a mobile or cellular phone. This abbreviation has several interpretations, the most common one being "Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number".[1]

The MSISDN and international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI) are two important numbers used for identifying a mobile subscriber. The IMSI is stored in the SIM (the card inserted into the mobile phone), and uniquely identifies the mobile station, its home wireless network, and the home country of the home wireless network. The MSISDN is used for routing calls to the subscriber. The IMSI is often used as a key in the home location register ("subscriber database") and the MSISDN is the number normally dialed to connect a call to the mobile phone. A SIM has a unique IMSI that does not change, while the MSISDN can change in time, i.e. different MSISDNs can be associated with the SIM.

The MSISDN follows the numbering plan defined in the International Telecommunication Standard Sector recommendation E.164.

Abbreviation

[edit]

Depending on source or standardization body, the abbreviation MSISDN can be written out in several different ways. These are today the most widespread and common in use.

Organization Meaning Source
3GPP
ITU
OMA 		Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number Vocabulary for 3GPP Specifications (new)[2]
ITU-T Rec. Q.1741-4 (10/2005)[3]
Dictionary for OMA Specifications [4]
CSPS
ITU
GSMA 		Mobile Station International ISDN Number(s) MSISDN Format and Details [5]
ITU-T Rec. Q.1741-4 (10/2005)[3]
Mobile Terms & Acronyms[6]
ITU Mobile International ISDN Number Vocabulary of Switching and Signalling Terms [7]

MSISDN format

[edit]

The ITU-T recommendation E.164 limits the maximum length of an MSISDN to 15 digits. 1-3 digits are reserved for country code. Prefixes are not included (e.g., 00 prefixes an international MSISDN when dialing from Sweden). Minimum length of the MSISDN is not specified by ITU-T but is instead specified in the national numbering plans by the telecommunications regulator in each country.

In GSM and its variant DCS 1800, MSISDN is built up as

MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN
CC = Country Code
NDC = National Destination Code, identifies one or part of a PLMN
SN = Subscriber Number

In the GSM variant PCS 1900, MSISDN is built up as

MSISDN = CC + NPA + SN
CC = Country Code
NPA = Number Planning Area
SN = Subscriber Number

The country code identifies a country or geographical area, and may be between 1-3 digits. The ITU defines and maintains the list of assigned country codes.

Example

[edit]

Example Number: +880 15 00121121 (Teletalk Hotline Number) Has the following subscription number:

MSISDN=8801500121121
MSISDN=CCCXXN1N2N3N4N5N6N7N8

CC/ISD Code CCC (Example: 880) Bangladesh
NDC/NPA Code XX (Example: 15) As allocated by the Government of Bangladesh:
Teletalk: 015
Grameenphone: 017 & 013
Banglalink: 019 & 014
Robi: 018 & 016
SN N1N2N3N4N5N6N7N8
(example: 00121121)

For further information on the MSISDN format, see the ITU-T specification E.164.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

MSISDN

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from Grokipedia
The Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number (MSISDN) is a unique telephone number assigned to a mobile subscription in cellular networks, such as those based on , , LTE, and standards, serving as the primary public identifier for routing voice calls, , and other telecommunication services to the subscriber's device. Structured according to the international numbering plan, an MSISDN consists of a (CC), followed by a national significant number that includes a national destination code (NDC) and a subscriber number (SN), with a maximum of 15 digits to ensure global uniqueness and compatibility. Unlike the internal , which is a identifier composed of a (MCC), mobile network code (MNC), and mobile subscriber identification number (MSIN), the MSISDN is publicly visible and linked to the IMSI in the Home Location Register (HLR) or Home Subscriber Server (HSS) for service provisioning and authentication. This linkage allows for features like number portability, where the MSISDN can remain associated with a subscriber even if the IMSI changes, and supports multiple MSISDNs per IMSI for advanced services such as multi-numbering. MSISDNs are mandatory for most (PLMN) subscribers accessing circuit-switched domain services but may be optional for packet-switched-only subscriptions, playing a critical role in , emergency calling, and integration with (IMS) for multimedia communications.

Definition

Abbreviation and Meaning

MSISDN stands for Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number. This term encapsulates a in mobile , formally defined in standards developed for global mobile networks. The core concept of an MSISDN is that it serves as the unique, dialable telephone number assigned to a mobile subscriber, enabling identification and within public telecommunication networks. It functions as the primary directory number for reaching a subscriber's from external networks, such as the (PSTN). Etymologically, "Mobile Station" refers to the user's mobile equipment or device in the network; "International" denotes its adherence to a global numbering plan with worldwide scope; and "Subscriber Directory Number" aligns with ITU standards for directory-accessible numbers used in subscriber services, structured according to Recommendation E.164. This breakdown reflects the identifier's role in integrating mobile users into international directory and routing systems. MSISDN was introduced as part of the adaptations of Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) principles for , specifically within the framework of the Global System for Mobile communications (GSM) to support digital mobile subscriber numbering.

Purpose in Telecommunications

The MSISDN, or Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number, primarily functions as the unique telephone number assigned to a mobile subscriber, enabling the routing of incoming voice calls and short message service () messages to the appropriate device within the network. In mobile network operations, when an incoming call or SMS is directed to an MSISDN, the gateway mobile switching center (GMSC) queries the home location register (HLR) to obtain routing information, such as the mobile station roaming number (MSRN), ensuring delivery to the subscriber's current location. This process relies on the signaling system No. 7 (SS7) protocol, specifically the mobile application part (MAP), for call setup and location updates, allowing the network to track and connect the subscriber dynamically. Beyond routing, the MSISDN serves as the external identifier for essential network services, including billing, , and directory inquiries. Operators use it to generate charging data records (CDRs) that associate usage—such as call duration, data volume, or counts—with the subscriber for accurate invoicing. In scenarios, the MSISDN identifies the subscriber across visited networks, enabling seamless connectivity and settlement between home and foreign operators through standardized protocols. Unlike internal identifiers like the IMSI, which remain hidden for , the MSISDN is publicly known and directly used by end-users to initiate or receive communications. As an E.164-compliant number, the MSISDN promotes global interoperability among mobile networks, allowing users to maintain consistent numbering and service access worldwide. It also underpins value-added services by providing a reliable endpoint for SMS-based applications, such as one-time password (OTP) delivery for authentication in or secure transactions. This utility extends to directory services, where the MSISDN links subscriber profiles for features like or contact resolution, enhancing overall network efficiency and user experience.

Structure

Format and Components

The Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number (MSISDN) follows the international public telecommunication numbering plan outlined in ITU-T Recommendation E.164, which specifies a maximum length of 15 digits for global uniqueness and routability in public networks. This format ensures compatibility with integrated services digital network (ISDN) and (PSTN) systems, treating MSISDN as a standard E.164 telephone number assigned to mobile subscribers. The MSISDN is composed of three primary components: the country code (CC), the national destination code (NDC), and the subscriber number (SN). The country code is a 1- to 3-digit prefix identifying the country of registration, such as 1 for the or 49 for . The national destination code, which varies by country from 1 to 4 or more digits, follows the CC and identifies the mobile network operator or service area within the country, with multiple NDCs possible per (PLMN) in some regions. The subscriber number, comprising the remaining digits to fit within the national plan (often 6 to 9 digits but varying), uniquely identifies the individual subscriber within that operator's network and may incorporate additional routing digits if needed. Parsing an MSISDN adheres to strict rules defined in to maintain international consistency. In the international format, the number begins with a plus sign (+) followed by the CC without leading zeros, and the total digit count excludes any optional sub-address (up to 20 octets) that might be appended for further addressing. National lengths vary by country due to differing numbering plans; for instance, the uses a 10-digit national number (CC + 10 digits total), while employs a 10-digit national significant number for mobile (CC + 10 digits total). These variations ensure the overall structure remains within the 15-digit limit while accommodating local requirements.

International Standardization

The international standardization of the Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number (MSISDN) is overseen by the , a specialized agency of the responsible for developing global telecommunication standards. The ITU-T defines MSISDN within its Recommendation , titled "The international public telecommunication numbering plan," which establishes a uniform framework for international numbering, including MSISDN as a subset of international Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) numbers. This recommendation ensures that MSISDNs adhere to a consistent global structure, facilitating seamless communication across diverse networks and borders. Under , the allocation process begins with the assigning country codes (typically 1 to 3 digits) to individual countries, geographic regions, or global services, creating a hierarchical system that prevents overlaps and supports international dialing. National Destination Codes (NDCs) and subscriber numbers are then managed by national regulatory authorities within each country, which oversee the distribution to mobile network operators while complying with guidelines. For instance, in the United States, the (FCC) administers the allocation of these national components under the , ensuring efficient use and availability of numbers for mobile services. This standardization framework guarantees the uniqueness of MSISDNs worldwide and promotes among international telecommunication systems, enabling reliable of calls, messages, and data services. has undergone periodic updates to address evolving technologies and demands; the latest major revision was published in June 2020, with Amendment 1 issued in June 2011 to clarify aspects such as number structure and functionality, and ongoing supplements handle specific applications like number portability.

Examples

To illustrate the MSISDN structure in practice, consider the format used in the United States, where the country code is +1, followed by a 3-digit national destination code (NDC) for mobile networks, such as 201, and a 7-digit subscriber number, resulting in an example like +1 201 123 4567. In the , the MSISDN begins with the country code +44, a mobile NDC like 7911 (4 digits), and a 6-digit subscriber number, as in +44 7911 123456. For , the +91 precedes a 2-digit mobile NDC such as 98, followed by an 8-digit subscriber number, forming a full international MSISDN like +91 98XXX XXXXXX; nationally, this corresponds to a 10-digit number without the . Variations in formatting often involve handling leading zeros in national numbers: for instance, in , a national mobile number starting with 0151 (including the trunk zero) becomes +49 151 123 4567 internationally, dropping the internal zero while retaining the 3-digit NDC 151 and 7-digit subscriber number.

Relation to Other Identifiers

Comparison with IMSI

The is a unique identifier allocated to each mobile subscriber in , , EPS, and 5GS networks, consisting of up to 15 decimal digits and stored on the for and network access purposes. Unlike the MSISDN, which serves as a public, dialable telephone number for routing calls and messages in the (PSTN), the IMSI functions as a private, internal identifier solely for network operations such as subscriber management, , and , and is not directly accessible or dialable by end users. A primary distinction lies in their visibility and usage: the MSISDN is externally visible and routable, enabling public communication to a subscriber, whereas the IMSI remains concealed within the network to protect subscriber and is used exclusively for internal processes like without exposure to external entities. This separation ensures that while the MSISDN facilitates user-facing services, the IMSI supports secure, backend network functions without compromising anonymity in public interactions. In terms of structure, the IMSI comprises a (MCC, 3 digits), Mobile Network Code (MNC, 2 or 3 digits), and Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN, the remaining 9 or 10 digits), forming a fixed, globally unique code tied to the subscriber's identity across networks. By contrast, the MSISDN follows the E.164 international public telecommunication numbering plan, structured as a (CC, 1-3 digits), national destination code (NDC, variable), and subscriber number (SN, variable), up to 15 digits total, optimized for public dialing rather than internal network coding. There is no fixed one-to-one mapping between the two; instead, they are linked dynamically through the subscriber's profile in the network's home location register (HLR) or equivalent database. Notably, a single IMSI can be associated with multiple MSISDNs, allowing one subscriber to maintain several public numbers—such as for multi-SIM setups, virtual numbering services, or distinct profiles for voice, data, or supplementary services—while the IMSI remains the unchanging core identifier for the subscription. This flexibility supports advanced subscriber management without altering the fundamental identity.
AspectMSISDNIMSI
Primary RolePublic routing and dialing for calls/SMSInternal authentication and subscriber management
VisibilityExternal and user-facingNetwork-internal and private
DialabilityYes, follows planNo
StructureCC (1-3) + NDC + SN (up to 15 digits total)MCC (3) + MNC (2-3) + MSIN (9-10)
MappingMultiple per IMSI possibleOne per subscriber, fixed

Distinction from IMEI and ICCID

The MSISDN, or Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number, functions as the telephone number assigned to a mobile subscriber's account, enabling call routing and identification at the subscription level within networks. It adheres to the international numbering plan and is tied to the user's service agreement rather than physical components. In contrast, the (IMEI) is a 15-digit that uniquely identifies the mobile device hardware itself, consisting of a for the model and a for the individual unit, allowing networks to track and blacklist stolen or faulty equipment without reference to the user. Similarly, the Integrated Circuit Card Identifier (ICCID) is a 19- or 20-digit etched into each , serving as its unique global identifier for manufacturing, distribution, and activation purposes, as defined in Recommendation E.118. Unlike the MSISDN, which is operator-assigned and portable across hardware changes, the ICCID remains fixed to the specific and changes if the card is swapped, even if the subscription persists. These identifiers differ fundamentally in scope and mutability: the MSISDN emphasizes subscriber identity and can remain unchanged when a user replaces their device (altering the IMEI) or (altering the ICCID), ensuring continuity of service portability. The IMEI, being hardware-bound, is permanent and unchangeable without device replacement, while the ICCID, card-bound, supports SIM lifecycle management but does not denote the user or subscription directly. This separation allows networks to manage user services independently from physical assets.

Technical Usage

In Mobile Network Operations

In 2G and mobile network operations, the MSISDN serves as a critical identifier within the Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR) databases, where it is permanently stored in the HLR and mapped to the (IMSI) to enable subscriber lookup and authentication during device registration. This mapping allows the HLR to retrieve the subscriber's profile, including service subscriptions and authorization details, which are then forwarded to the VLR for temporary storage in the visited network, supporting seamless . In the VLR, the MSISDN-IMSI linkage facilitates real-time subscriber tracking and service provisioning, ensuring that incoming calls or messages can be routed correctly without relying solely on the IMSI, which is not publicly exposed. For call and SMS procedures, the MSISDN is integral to both origination and termination processes. In mobile-originated calls or , the MSISDN identifies the calling party and is used by the Mobile Switching Center (MSC) to query the HLR via the MAP_SEND_ROUTING_INFORMATION or MAP_PROCESS_ACCESS_REQUEST operations, verifying subscriber permissions and initiating the connection. For termination, the Gateway MSC (GMSC) employs the MSISDN as the destination address in MAP_SEND_ROUTING_INFORMATION for calls or MAP_SEND_ROUTING_INFO_FOR_SM for , prompting the HLR to provide routing details like the IMSI or a temporary roaming number to deliver the service. During roaming handovers, the MSISDN ensures service continuity by triggering location updates between VLRs, where the new VLR requests subscriber data from the HLR using the MSISDN-linked IMSI, maintaining call or session integrity across network boundaries without interruption. In and networks, the MSISDN specifically triggers Mobile Application Part () protocols during location updates, such as through the MAP_UPDATE_LOCATION operation, where it is included as an optional parameter in requests to the HLR, confirming the subscriber's current position and updating routing information for ongoing services. This mechanism supports efficient mobility without exposing sensitive identifiers like the IMSI. In and networks, the MSISDN continues to serve as a public identifier but is integrated into the all-IP architecture. It functions as part of the Generic Public Subscription Identifier (GPSI), which may include the MSISDN or external identifiers, mapped to the Subscription Permanent Identifier (SUPI) in the (UDM). This mapping supports authentication and service provisioning using protocols instead of , with the Access and Function (AMF) handling temporary identifiers for mobility. For voice and services, MSISDN is used in the (IMS) for routing via (SIP), enabling features like (VoLTE) and over IP. The MSISDN also extends to machine-to-machine (M2M) and (IoT) applications, where it enables device-to-device messaging by assigning unique directory numbers to connected devices, allowing them to originate or receive SMS-based communications over cellular networks for tasks like remote monitoring or alerts. In these scenarios, the MSISDN integrates with HLR/VLR functions to authenticate low-power devices, ensuring reliable connectivity in or fixed deployments without human intervention. In , this extends to NB-IoT and with similar GPSI usage.

Routing and Addressing

In mobile telecommunications networks, the routing process for calls and messages begins when the originating network switch, such as the Mobile Switching Center (MSC), parses the dialed MSISDN to initiate a query to the subscriber's Home Location Register (HLR). This query seeks the current location and routing information for the target subscriber, typically including the serving Visitor Location Register (VLR) or MSC. The query message is then routed across the Signaling System No. 7 (SS7) network using Signaling Transfer Points (STPs), which employ Global Title Translation (GTT) based on the MSISDN to identify and forward the signaling to the appropriate HLR, even across different networks. Upon receiving the HLR's response with routing details, the originating MSC forwards the call or message to the serving switch, completing the path establishment. As a , the MSISDN functions within the international public telecommunication numbering plan, providing a standardized format for directing communications globally. This structure includes a , national destination code, and subscriber number, enabling international gateway exchanges to route traffic between operators and countries without needing physical device details. By serving as this end-user identifier, the MSISDN decouples routing from the subscriber's temporary physical location, supporting seamless mobility while adhering to the hierarchical global plan. In (VoIP) and (IMS) environments, the MSISDN is resolved through the ENUM (E.164 Number Mapping) protocol, which translates the telephone number into a SIP URI for IP-based session routing. This DNS-based lookup constructs a domain from the reversed digits (e.g., for +1-123-456-7890, querying 0.9.8.7.6.5.4.3.2.1.e164.arpa) to retrieve associated URIs, facilitating interconnection between circuit-switched and packet-switched domains. A key challenge in MSISDN-based routing arises from (MNP), where subscribers switch providers while retaining their number, necessitating real-time updates to centralized portability databases to redirect queries and avoid misrouting to the former network. Inaccurate or delayed database synchronization can lead to call failures or delivery errors, requiring robust inter-operator agreements and query mechanisms like those in SS7 or protocols to maintain accuracy.

History and Evolution

Origins in GSM

The development of the MSISDN began within the framework of the (GSM), a pan-European digital mobile standard initiated by the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) in 1982 to replace analog systems and enable seamless . In September 1987, the GSM Memorandum of Understanding was signed by representatives from 13 operators across 12 European countries, committing to the procurement and deployment of a unified 900 MHz digital cellular system by 1991. This agreement accelerated the standardization efforts, with the first agreed GSM technical specifications produced in February 1987 under CEPT oversight. Responsibility for GSM development transferred to the newly formed European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in 1988, where the MSISDN was conceptualized as an adaptation of the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) numbering principles to assign unique directory numbers to mobile subscribers, supporting international identification and across borders. The MSISDN, standing for Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number, was designed to align with the international public telecommunication numbering plan, ensuring compatibility with fixed networks while accommodating mobile-specific needs like subscriber mobility. As part of the Phase 1 standards finalized in 1990, the MSISDN was explicitly defined in GSM Technical Specification 03.03, "Numbering, Addressing and Identification," which established it as the primary dialing number for reaching a mobile subscriber, structured according to Recommendation with a , national destination code, and subscriber number. This phase focused on core services including voice and basic , with MSISDN enabling the Home Location Register (HLR) to map subscriber identities to routable phone numbers. The practical rollout commenced with the launch of the world's first commercial network by Radiolinja (now Elisa) in on July 1, 1991, where MSISDNs were assigned to initial subscribers for voice calls and signaling. In 1993, the (ITU) further integrated mobile numbering into the framework via Recommendation E.168, extending the plan to explicitly support international mobile telecommunications and aligning it with GSM's global aspirations beyond .

Adaptations in Modern Networks

In third-generation (3G) Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) networks, the MSISDN retained its core role as a subscriber identifier for circuit-switched services while being integrated into the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) for emerging multimedia capabilities. The IMS architecture, defined by 3GPP, treats the MSISDN as a form of public user identity, analogous to its function in GSM/UMTS, enabling seamless mapping to IMS private user identities for authentication and service access. This integration ensured legacy compatibility, allowing MSISDN-based routing for voice and SMS alongside new IP-based multimedia sessions, without requiring wholesale replacement of existing numbering schemes. With the transition to fourth-generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks, the MSISDN continued to serve as the primary external identifier for Voice over LTE (VoLTE), operating alongside Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) signaling within the IMS framework to support packet-switched voice services. VoLTE leverages the MSISDN for global interoperability, interconnectivity with legacy networks, and roaming, ensuring quality-of-service guarantees and regulatory compliance similar to prior generations. Additionally, number portability was enhanced through centralized databases, such as the Number Portability Database (NPDB), which query the MSISDN to route calls and messages to the correct recipient network post-porting, reducing operational fragmentation across operators. In fifth-generation (5G) networks, the MSISDN has been supplemented by privacy-focused identifiers like the Subscription Permanent Identifier (SUPI) and Subscription Concealed Identifier (SUCI) to mitigate exposure risks over the air interface. The SUPI serves as the permanent subscription identifier (often based on the IMSI), while the SUCI encrypts it for transmission, concealing the SUPI from eavesdroppers; this addresses vulnerabilities in prior generations where IMSIs were directly transmitted. However, the MSISDN persists as a Generic Public Subscription Identifier (GPSI) in the 5G core network, primarily for external addressing and interworking with non-5G systems, but it is not used for authentication to enhance privacy. GSMA guidelines from the 2020s, such as the IoT Device Connection Efficiency Guidelines (TS.34 v11.0, 2024), require support for MSISDN alongside other identifiers like IMSI for IoT deployments in modern networks, facilitating compatibility in device registration and service provisioning in both and environments. This approach supports low-power, wide-area IoT applications by leveraging existing MSISDN infrastructure for connectivity management, while encouraging operators to optimize signaling to minimize battery drain and network load.

References

  1. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123003/16.03.00_60/ts_123003v160300p.pdf
  2. https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-E.164/en
  3. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123003/18.06.00_60/ts_123003v180600p.pdf
  4. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123003/17.10.00_60/ts_123003v171000p.pdf
  5. https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/t-sp-e.164d-2009-pdf-e.pdf
  6. https://www.fcc.gov/general/numbering-resources
  7. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123003/13.09.00_60/ts_123003v130900p.pdf
  8. https://www.gsma.com/newsroom/wp-content/uploads/SGP.02-v4.0.pdf
  9. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123008/17.01.00_60/ts_123008v170100p.pdf
  10. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/129000_129099/129002/15.05.00_60/ts_129002v150500p.pdf
  11. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123500_123599/123501/18.06.00_60/ts_123501v180600p.pdf
  12. https://www.gsma.com/newsroom/wp-content/uploads//NG.112-v3.0-2.pdf
  13. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123008/18.00.00_60/ts_123008v180000p.pdf
  14. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/129000_129099/129002/18.00.00_60/ts_129002v180000p.pdf
  15. https://www.itu.int/rec/t-rec-e.164/en
  16. https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc3824.html
  17. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123000_123099/123066/05.01.00_60/ts_123066v050100p.pdf
  18. https://www.engagingwithcommunications.com/Technology/Mobiles/GSM/GSM_MOU_1987.pdf
  19. https://www.gsma.com/about-us/who-we-are/our-history/
  20. https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/research/tr/1996/15/CS-96-15.pdf
  21. https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_gts/03/0303/05.00.00_60/gsmts_0303v050000p.pdf
  22. https://www.ericsson.com/en/about-us/history/changing-the-world/world-leadership/who-was-first
  23. https://www.itu.int/rec/dologin_pub.asp?lang=e&id=T-REC-E.168-199303-S!!PDF-E&type=items
  24. https://www.ericsson.com/en/reports-and-papers/white-papers/voice-and-communication-services-in-4g-and-5g-networks
  25. https://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/23_series/23.501/23501-gk0.zip
  26. https://www.gsma.com/get-involved/working-groups/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/TS.34-v11.0-IoT-Device-Connection-Efficiency-Guidelines.docx
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