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Mammal Species of the World
Mammal Species of the World
Mammal Species of the World
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Pie chart of mammal species

Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (MSW) is a standard reference work in mammalogy giving descriptions and bibliographic data for the known species of mammals. It is now in its third edition, published in late 2005, which was edited by Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn M. Reeder.[1] An online version is hosted by Bucknell University (see "External links" below).

The Checklist Committee of the American Society of Mammalogists was charged with compiling and updating MSW. In its Annual Report for 2015, the Committee noted that it is under contract with Johns Hopkins Press for the 4th edition of MSW, which will be edited by DeeAnn M. Reeder and Kristofer M. Helgen. The database was made editable for the authors, with the intention of more frequent website updates. The 4th edition was initially expected to be published in 2017,[2] and then deferred until 2019,[3] but it has yet to be published as of 2025. The Checklist Committee has since been repurposed into the Biodiversity Committee,[4] which in 2018 released and now maintains the Mammal Diversity Database.[5][6]

References

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Mammal Species of the World

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Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference is a standard compendium in that catalogs the scientific names, synonyms, distributions, and taxonomic classifications of all known , serving as an authoritative checklist for researchers and conservationists. First published in 1982, the work has become essential for verifying and understanding mammalian , with its third edition documenting 5,416 across 29 orders. Edited by Don E. Wilson of the and DeeAnn M. Reeder of , the third edition was published in 2005 by in a two-volume set totaling 2,142 pages. This edition represents a significant expansion from the second (1993), incorporating 260 newly described , extensive taxonomic revisions influenced by molecular , and over 37,000 synonyms, while adding common names and detailed information for the first time. Contributions from 26 specialists, primarily from the , ensure rigorous peer-reviewed accounts, with flexibility in systematic arrangements to reflect ongoing debates in the field. The book's structure organizes mammals hierarchically from orders to , including fields such as original authorship, type localities, geographic ranges, and status comments, supported by 9,373 bibliographic references. Endorsed by the American Society of Mammalogists, it functions as a baseline taxonomic , highlighting gaps in knowledge and aiding applications in museum collections, zoo management, and assessments. An online version hosted by provides free access to the third edition database for non-commercial use, enhancing broader . While the third edition remains the most recent printed version, subsequent research has identified additional species; as of 2025, the total recognized mammals stands at 6,759, underscoring the dynamic nature of that Mammal Species of the World continues to influence. Ongoing updates are provided through resources like the Mammal Diversity Database.

History and Development

Origins and Purpose

The Mammal Species of the World project originated in the late 1970s under the auspices of the and the American Society of Mammalogists, initiated by Stephen R. Edwards and Robert S. Hoffmann through the Checklist Committee, driven by the need for a unified global of mammals amid a fragmented and rapidly expanding that made it challenging for researchers to track species names, synonyms, and distributions. The initiative aimed to compile data from over 1,000 sources into a single, authoritative reference covering approximately 4,000 extant species at the time, including their scientific names, synonyms, and basic geographic distributions. The project's primary purpose was to standardize mammalian and provide a foundational tool for scientific research, conservation efforts, and international collaboration, thereby addressing inconsistencies in that hindered progress in . This endeavor emerged within the broader historical context of post-World War II advancements in , which saw accelerated species discoveries and taxonomic revisions, filling critical gaps left by earlier comprehensive references such as Ernest P. Walker's Mammals of the World (1964). Subsequent editions expanded upon this foundation to incorporate new findings and refine the taxonomic framework.

Editors and Contributors

The first edition was edited by James H. Honacki, Kenneth E. Kinman, and James W. Koeppl. Starting with the second edition, the compilation of Mammal Species of the World (MSW) was led by Don E. Wilson, a and emeritus in the Department of Vertebrate Zoology at the , whose expertise in mammalian , particularly bats, informed the taxonomic frameworks. Wilson authored or co-authored significant portions of the volumes, drawing on his extensive research to ensure comprehensive coverage of species distributions and , while coordinating the integration of global data into a unified reference. DeeAnn M. Reeder served as co-editor starting with the second edition, affiliated with and as a research associate at the , where she specialized in bat systematics and broader mammalian , including coordination of taxonomic reviews for subsequent editions. Her role involved overseeing updates to incorporate molecular and morphological data, particularly for Chiroptera, ensuring the work's alignment with advancing phylogenetic insights. The project drew on contributions from over 189 professional mammalogists across 23 countries for the first edition, with subsequent editions involving specialized teams of approximately 20-25 experts who submitted peer-reviewed accounts organized by taxonomic family. Notable among them was Alfred L. Gardner, a at the Smithsonian, who provided authoritative revisions for marsupials, including and related groups, as well as xenarthrans, emphasizing nomenclatural accuracy and geographic ranges. This collaborative process relied on solicited expertise from the global community, with submissions vetted through specialist committees to maintain rigorous standards. The played a central institutional role, providing essential funding through its Seidell Fund and resources via the National Museum of Natural History's mammal collections, which supported data compilation and editorial oversight across editions. This backing facilitated the project's evolution from a print reference to a foundational taxonomic database, underscoring the Smithsonian's commitment to advancing .

Editions

First Edition (1982)

The first edition of Mammal Species of the World was published in 1982 by Allen Press and the Association of Systematics Collections in , comprising a single volume of 694 pages. Edited by James H. Honacki, Kenneth E. Kinman, and James W. Koeppl, it provided the first comprehensive global checklist of extant mammal species, recognizing 4,170 species across all mammalian orders and families. This work emphasized taxonomic stability by adhering strictly to the , marking a significant advancement in standardizing mammalian classification on an international scale. A key innovation was the inclusion, for each species, of the original description citation, a list of synonyms, the type locality, and a summary of geographic distribution, which facilitated precise identification and reduced nomenclatural confusion arising from historical discrepancies. The scope deliberately focused on species-level taxonomy, excluding subspecies to maintain conciseness while prioritizing the resolution of ongoing disputes in nomenclature across families and orders, such as those in rodents and bats where synonymy was prevalent. This approach addressed a critical need for a unified reference amid fragmented regional checklists, enabling researchers to trace phylogenetic relationships and distributional patterns more reliably. Upon release, the edition received acclaim for establishing a benchmark in mammalian , becoming an industry standard that promoted consistency in scientific and supported assessments. However, reviewers noted its inherent limitations as a static compilation, given the rapid pace of taxonomic discoveries and revisions in , which would necessitate updates to capture emerging species and reclassifications. Subsequent editions built on this foundation by incorporating new data and electronic formats.

Second Edition (1993)

The second edition of Mammal Species of the World, edited by Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn M. Reeder, published in 1993 by the Press in association with the American Society of Mammalogists, appeared as a single volume spanning xviii + 1206 pages. Building on the first edition's foundation of 4,170 species, this revision incorporated 459 additional species, bringing the total recognized to 4,629, with 172 of the new entries representing species described since and the remainder resulting from taxonomic splits based on refined analyses. Of these additions, accounted for 86, bats for 28, and insectivores for 23, reflecting intensified field surveys and systematic revisions in those groups. Key updates in the 1993 edition expanded the scope beyond pure to include geographic ranges for each , summarized concisely to indicate native distributions across continents, countries, or islands where data permitted. This geographic component addressed a major limitation of the 1982 edition, enabling better assessments of and specificity. Additionally, the work integrated literature citations for each entry, drawing from over 9,000 references to support synonymies, type localities, and distributional notes, thereby enhancing and scholarly utility. Taxonomic revisions incorporated emerging evidence from molecular studies, such as allozyme and early analyses, leading to adjustments like the recognition of additional genera in groups such as Chiroptera and ; however, alternative classifications were noted in footnotes rather than presented as parallel arrangements, streamlining the primary consensus. Methodologically, the edition emphasized cladistic approaches to phylogeny, prioritizing monophyletic groupings informed by morphological and nascent molecular datasets over traditional evolutionary grades, which had dominated earlier works. This shift responded to critiques of the first edition's incomplete handling of and outdated hierarchies, with expanded lists now including authorities and dates for greater precision, though some reviewers noted ongoing debates over species-level decisions in understudied taxa. Released amid heightened global awareness of the crisis following the 1980s surge in habitat loss and reports, the second edition provided a critical baseline for conservation, directly supporting the IUCN's efforts to compile comprehensive assessments for the Red List by offering standardized and distribution data. Its timely updates facilitated rapid integration into international conventions, underscoring the accelerating pace of mammalian discoveries and the need for ongoing taxonomic vigilance.

Third Edition (2005)

The third edition of Mammal Species of the World, edited by Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn M. Reeder, was published on December 21, 2005, by the Press as a two-volume set totaling 2,142 pages. This edition documents 5,416 species of mammals, encompassing all recognized extant taxa at the time and serving as a foundational taxonomic reference endorsed by the American Society of Mammalogists. Building on the foundations of the first (1982) and second (1993) editions, it expanded coverage to reflect advances in over the intervening decades, with contributions from 26 specialists, primarily from the , who updated classifications across orders. A key expansion in this edition was the inclusion, for the first time, of s in English for every species, alongside detailed nomenclatural information such as type localities, synonyms (totaling 37,378 across entries), and geographic distributions. These additions enhanced accessibility for non-specialists while maintaining rigorous scientific detail, with each species entry providing the scientific name, , type locality, distribution, status, synonyms, comments, and literature references—drawing from 9,373 cited sources. Distributions were updated based on contemporary field data and literature, offering improved geographic precision compared to prior editions. Methodologically, the edition integrated recent phylogenetic research, incorporating molecular evidence to refine classifications; for instance, the order was restructured based on DNA-based phylogenies that complemented records, as outlined in seminal work by Groves (1998, updated in the volume). Peer-reviewed by a broad network of mammalogists, the compilation emphasized consensus , resolving debates on limits through expert synthesis rather than exhaustive original analysis. This approach solidified the work's status as the authoritative global checklist, with lasting features like its indexed common and scientific names facilitating ongoing research.

Content and Organization

Taxonomic Structure

The taxonomic structure of Mammal Species of the World follows the traditional Linnaean hierarchy, organizing all recognized mammal species into 29 orders, 153 families, 1,229 genera, and 5,416 species across its editions, with a strong emphasis on monophyletic groupings informed by phylogenetic evidence. This framework prioritizes stability and clarity by adhering to the , particularly in the use of family-group names (families, subfamilies, superfamilies, and tribes) to reflect evolutionary relationships. The approach incorporates molecular systematics to address longstanding taxonomic debates, such as the close phylogenetic affinity between Cetacea and Artiodactyla, which supports merger into the order Cetartiodactyla in some contemporary classifications outside this work, while the third edition (like earlier ones) maintains them as separate orders. A key principle is the adoption of senior synonyms for valid names to ensure nomenclatural consistency, with over 37,000 synonyms documented alongside their authorities to aid researchers in tracing historical nomenclature. Within this structure, higher taxa are supported by identification keys for orders, families, and other groups, facilitating practical use in systematics and field identification. For example, the order Rodentia, the largest in the classification with 2,277 species across 481 genera, is subdivided into suborders such as Myomorpha (including mice and rats), Sciuromorpha (squirrels), and Hystricomorpha (porcupines and cavies), highlighting the diversity and monophyletic organization within major lineages. This hierarchical arrangement provides a comprehensive scaffold for understanding mammalian diversity without delving into species-specific details.

Species Entries

The species entries in Mammal Species of the World follow a standardized format designed to catalog taxonomic and nomenclatural details for each recognized mammal species, serving as a core component of the reference's utility for researchers and conservationists. Each entry begins with the current scientific name in , accompanied by the author(s) and year of original description, followed by a list of synonyms with their respective authorities. This is complemented by the type locality—the geographic site where the specimen was collected—and a concise summary of the species' known distribution, often noting range extent across continents or biomes. References to primary sources, including the original publication and key taxonomic works, conclude the entry to enable verification and further study. Unique to the series are elements that enhance and contextual relevance, such as brief status notes indicating taxonomic stability or conservation concerns, for example, whether a is considered endangered based on prevailing assessments. While of scientific names is not systematically included, the third edition introduced vernacular (common) names in English for all , facilitating broader use beyond specialists, and incorporated categories where evaluations were available at the time of publication, including notations for officially listed as "Not Evaluated" or pending assessment. These additions reflect an evolution toward integrating basic conservation data without delving into detailed . The entries are deliberately concise, typically spanning a few paragraphs to prioritize taxonomic precision over expansive description, and explicitly exclude in-depth behavioral, ecological, or morphological details to maintain focus on and . In digital versions, such as the online database hosted by , distribution summaries are presented in searchable text format, with some resources linking to external range maps for visualization. This structure ensures the work remains a streamlined tool for resolving synonymy and confirming species identities. Across editions, the format has evolved to accommodate growing taxonomic knowledge. The first edition (1982) offered a basic structure limited primarily to scientific names, authors, synonyms, and brief distributional notes, covering about 4,000 with minimal references. The second edition (1993) expanded to include more comprehensive synonymy and type localities for over 4,600 . By the third edition (2005), entries were enriched with common names, IUCN statuses, and identification of where recognized, alongside authority details for all synonyms; the volume as a whole drew on 9,373 citations to support these updates for 5,416 . These refinements underscore the reference's role in tracking mammalian diversity amid ongoing revisions.

Digital Resources and Updates

Online Database (Bucknell)

The online database hosted by Bucknell University's Biology Department was launched in 2005 as a free, web-based searchable version of the third edition of Mammal Species of the World. Maintained by the department, it functions as a comprehensive taxonomic resource mirroring the print edition's content, enabling users worldwide to access and verify mammalian without cost. The database emphasizes utility for researchers and educators, providing a structured digital alternative to the physical volume published by . Key features include taxonomic browsing by order, , , and , alongside a search function for scientific and common names. It catalogs 5,416 , with each entry offering hyperlinks to associated synonyms, type localities, and geographic distributions. This structure facilitates quick navigation through the mammalian hierarchy, from class Mammalia to levels, while supporting taxonomic by linking related entries. Additionally, the database allows users to export the full taxonomy in CSV format, approximately 8.5 MB in size, for offline analysis and integration into other tools. The database is a static digital version of the 2005 edition, with no taxonomic updates or additions of new species. The resource continues to be actively maintained for access, with contact available through the Biology Department for reporting issues, underscoring its role as a stable digital archive.

Mammal Diversity Database

The Mammal Diversity Database (MDD) was launched in 2018 by the American Society of Mammalogists (ASM) through its Biodiversity Committee, serving as an open-access digital evolution of the Mammal Species of the World to deliver ongoing taxonomic updates beyond the static 2005 edition. This initiative addresses the rapid pace of mammalian taxonomy changes driven by molecular and morphological research, with the database hosted online and maintained collaboratively to ensure accessibility for researchers worldwide. Version 2.3, released on September 1, 2025, catalogs 6,836 mammal species (6,723 living and 113 recently extinct), marking a significant expansion from prior counts. Key features of the MDD include real-time taxonomic revisions facilitated by its repository, which allows for version-controlled tracking of updates, and integration of data from sources such as assessments and molecular phylogenies to incorporate recent discoveries and reclassifications. Since 2005, the database has tracked over 1,400 newly described species, many emerging from field surveys in biodiversity hotspots like the Amazon, where molecular analyses have revealed cryptic diversity in groups such as bats and . It also encompasses recently extinct species, with 113 documented since approximately 1500 CE, drawing on subfossil records and conservation data to provide a comprehensive view of mammalian . The methodology emphasizes community-driven curation, where experts contribute revisions based on peer-reviewed publications, with all changes documented via GitHub's system to maintain transparency and reproducibility. Subjective taxonomic decisions are justified and flagged within the database, adhering to the . As of November 2025, the MDD recognizes 1,361 genera and integrates with tools like PhyloPic for open-source silhouette illustrations, enhancing visual representation of species in phylogenetic trees and taxonomic explorations. The database builds briefly on the predecessor online portal for the 2005 edition by enabling dynamic, post-publication expansions. Version 2.3 includes enhancements such as geographic codings, a nomenclatural , and a redesign.

Significance and Reception

Research Applications

Mammal Species of the World serves as a foundational in phylogenetic studies, providing a standardized taxonomic framework that has been cited in approximately 10,900 scientific papers. This work underpins analyses of evolutionary relationships among mammals, enabling researchers to align genetic data with established . It also supports initiatives, such as the (BOLD), where its species lists facilitate the identification and cataloging of genetic sequences for assessment. In conservation efforts, the publication informs assessments for the , serving as the primary source for mammal and counts in global threat evaluations. It is similarly integral to the , acting as a standard reference for regulating in over 900 mammal across its appendices. These applications ensure consistent identification and protection of threatened populations. The book functions as a standard reference in education, required reading in university courses worldwide, such as those at the , where it provides essential taxonomic knowledge for students studying mammal diversity. Its comprehensive coverage aids global biodiversity education by offering a reliable resource for teaching and . Digital updates to the database have further enhanced its utility in these research contexts.

Limitations and Criticisms

The third edition of Mammal Species of the World (MSW3), published in 2005, has been critiqued for its outdated taxonomy, as it predates significant revisions driven by advances in molecular phylogenetics and field discoveries. For instance, MSW3 recognized 1,116 species of bats (Chiroptera), representing a substantial underestimation compared to the current total of 1,500 species documented in specialized databases. Overall mammalian species counts have similarly increased from 5,416 in MSW3 to 6,836 as of September 2025, highlighting the static nature of the print edition in a field where new species descriptions and taxonomic splits occur frequently. A key criticism centers on MSW3's heavy reliance on morphological characteristics for species delimitation, developed in an before widespread integration of . This approach often overlooked that later revealed hidden diversity, particularly in groups where morphological stasis masks evolutionary splits. Consequently, the work provides incomplete coverage of cryptic species, which are especially prevalent in tropical ecosystems due to limited sampling and the challenges of distinguishing morphologically similar forms. Specific taxonomic issues persist, such as ongoing synonymy disputes in the family , where the status of genera like Loxodonta (encompassing African elephants) remains debated based on conflicting morphological and genomic evidence. MSW3's entries lack quantitative metrics, such as genetic distances or divergence times, which are now standard in modern taxonomic assessments to resolve such ambiguities. These limitations have been partially addressed through digital resources like the Diversity Database (MDD), which builds on MSW3 by incorporating post-2005 molecular and nomenclatural updates to track ongoing revisions. However, the print editions remain unchanged, reducing their utility in rapidly evolving fields like where timely taxonomic accuracy is essential.

References

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