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Rising Star Cave
Rising Star Cave
Rising Star Cave
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The Rising Star cave system (also known as Westminster or Empire cave) is located in the Malmani dolomites, in Bloubank River valley, about 800 meters (0.50 miles; 2,600 feet) southwest of Swartkrans, part of the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site in South Africa.[1][2] Recreational caving has occurred there since the 1960s.[2] In 2015, fossils found there two years prior were determined to be a previously unknown extinct species of hominin named Homo naledi.[1]

Key Information

Names

[edit]

In the 1980s, the names "Empire", "Westminster", and "Rising Star" were used interchangeably.[3]

The discovered species's name, homo naledi (using the Sesotho for "star"), and the "Dinaledi Chamber" (using the Sesotho word for "stars")[4] were so named by members of the Rising Star Expedition in reference to the species and chamber's location in Rising Star Cave.[1][4][5]

A portion of the cave, used by the excavation team en route to the Dinaledi Chamber, is called "Superman's Crawl" because most people can fit through only by holding one arm tightly against the body and extending the other above the head, in the manner of Superman in flight.[2][5]

The Superman Crawl opens into the "Dragon's Back Chamber," which includes an approximately 15-metre (49-foot) exposed climb up a ridge of a sharp-edged dolomite block that fell from the roof sometime in the distant past. This block is the so-called Dragon's Back, so named because the climbing route appears to progress from the tail to the head along the spiked spine of a mythical beast.[5]

History

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Geologists think the cave in which the fossils were discovered is no older than three million years.[6]

The cave was explored in the 1980s by the Speleological Exploration Club (SEC), a local branch of the South African Speleological Association (SASA).[3]

Discovery of fossils in "Dinaledi Chamber"

[edit]
A cross-section of a portion of the Rising Star cave system leading to the Dinaledi Chamber
An illustration of the Dinaledi Chamber, where H. naledi bones were excavated

On 13 September 2013, while exploring the Rising Star cave system, recreational cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker of the Speleological Exploration Club (SEC) found a narrow, vertically oriented "chimney" or "chute" measuring 12 m (39 ft) long with an average width of 20 cm (7.9 in).[2][5][7][8] Then Hunter discovered a room 30 m (98 ft) underground (Site U.W.101[9] or UW-101, the Dinaledi Chamber), the surface of which was littered with fossil bones. On 1 October, photos of the site were shown to Pedro Boshoff and then to Lee Berger, both of the University of the Witwatersrand.[7][10]

The arrangement of bones, as well as several survey pegs, suggested "someone had already been there" as recently as a few decades earlier.[2][5] The appearance of limited fossilisation initially led the explorers to think the bones were from the last caver into the chamber, who had subsequently never made it back out alive.[2]

2013 and 2014 excavations

[edit]

Berger organized an expedition to excavate the fossils, which started on 7 November 2013.[10] The expedition was funded by the South African National Research Foundation and the National Geographic Society.[11][12]

The Dinaledi Chamber was assigned the designation UW-101 (or U.W.101[9]) and was excavated by the six "Underground Astronauts" (see below) of the Rising Star Expedition during November 2013. More than 1,200 fossil elements were recovered and catalogued in November 2013,[13] representing at least a dozen individuals.[14] Only 20 out of 206 bones in the human body were not found in the cave as of Summer 2014.[15] By April 2014, between two localities, 1,754 specimens were recovered.[16]

The layered distribution of the bones (in clay-rich sediments) suggests that they had been deposited over a long period of time, perhaps centuries.[2][5] Only one square meter of the cave chamber has been excavated; other remains might still be there.[5][11][17][18]

On 20 February 2014, Rick Hunter, Lee Berger, John Hawks, Alia Gurtov, and Pedro Boshoff returned to Rising Star to evaluate a second potential site. The site, designated UW-102 (or U.W.102, aka Lesedi Chamber),[9] was found by cavers Rick Hunter and Steve Tucker on the last day of the first Rising Star Expedition, and limited excavation began in April 2014.[16][19]

As of September 2015, fossils of at least fifteen individuals, amounting to 1,550 specimens, had been excavated from the cave.[1][2] About 300 bone fragments were collected from the surface of the Dinaledi Chamber, and about 1,250 fossil specimens were recovered from the chamber's main excavation pit, Unit 3.[5] The fossils include skulls, jaws, ribs, teeth, bones of an almost complete foot, of a hand, and of an inner ear. The bones of both old and young individuals, as well as infants, were found.[1][2]

The 15 partial skeletons, which were found in a small underground chamber, invite speculation on the circumstances of their location. Paleoanthropologist John D. Hawks, from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, who is a member of the team, has stated that the scientific facts are that all the bones recovered are hominin, except for those of one owl; there are no signs of predation, and there is no predator that accumulates only hominins this way; the bones did not accumulate there all at once. There is no evidence of rocks or sediment having dropped into the cave from any opening in the surface, nor any evidence of water flowing into the cave carrying the bones into the cave.[5][20][21]

Hawks concluded that the best hypothesis is that the bodies were deliberately placed in the cave after death, by other members of the species.[22] Berger et al. suggest that "these individuals were capable of ritual behaviour." They speculate that the placing of dead bodies in the cave was a ritualistic behaviour, a sign of symbolic thought.[23] "Ritual" here means an intentional and repeated practice (disposing of dead bodies in the cave), and not implying any type of religious rite.[6] This hypothesis has been criticised for its improbability.[24][25]

A study involving the statistical reconstruction of hominin evolutionary trees from skull and tooth measurements, originally indicated that the most likely age for H. naledi was 912 kya.[26][27][28]

The age of the original Homo naledi remains from the Dinaledi Chamber has been revealed to be startlingly young in age. Homo naledi, which was first announced in September 2015, was alive sometime between 335 and 236 thousand years ago. This places this population of primitive small-brained hominins at a time and place that it is likely they lived alongside Homo sapiens.

— Wits University 9 May 2017

A collaborative workshop involving 54 local and international scientists took place in May 2014 at the University of the Witwatersrand.[2][16][29] On 10 September 2015, the fossils were publicly unveiled and given the name Homo naledi.[1][5]

Dating

[edit]

The fossils of the Dinaledi chamber have been dated to between 335,000 and 236,000 years ago, long after much larger-brained and more modern-looking hominins had appeared.[30][31] Geologists estimate that the cave in which the fossils were discovered is no older than three million years,[6] and the ages for flowstone where the fossils were recovered from was interpreted to be deposited between 236,000 and 414,000 years ago.[30]

Rock engravings

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In 2023, Berger published a preliminary report that described rock engravings on a pillar in the Hill Antechamber, near where bodies were found. They are "deeply impressed cross-hatchings and other geometric shapes. The surfaces bearing these engravings appear to have been prepared and smoothed." Berger goes on to note, "If confirmed, the antiquity, intentionality, and authorship of the reported markings will have profound archaeological implications, as such behaviors are otherwise widely considered to be unique to our species, Homo sapiens." However, it does concede the discovery requires more work to confirm who made the markings and when.[32] In addition, Berger found evidence of extensive fire use in the cave, presumably to provide light.[33]

"Underground Astronauts"

[edit]

A group of six women scientists initially excavated the cave. Because of the difficulty and danger involved in reaching the Dinaledi Chamber, the six were given the nickname "Underground Astronauts."[34] They had been selected by the expedition leader, Lee Rogers Berger,[35][36] who posted a message on Facebook asking for scientists with experience in paleontological excavations and caving. Specifically he needed scientists who were small and slender enough to crawl through very narrow spaces.[37] Within ten days of the post, Berger had received almost sixty applicants and chose six scientists to make up his expedition team.[38] Berger's use of social media to recruit early-career researchers for excavation and analysis drew some criticism. While his unconventional recruitment methods and transparency of documenting the process via daily blogs and radio won him the nickname "Mr. Paleodemocracy," some of his colleagues at the time thought the expedition "had more hype than substance".[39]

The six scientists had to pass through three points of difficult terrain in the cave to reach the bone chamber. The first is referred to as "Superman's Crawl," which required one arm held forward to pass, similar to Superman's flight. They then had to climb vertically up a rock surface, known as the "Dragon's back," and finally pass through a slender opening[40][41] and descend 30 meters into the Dinaledi chamber.[40][38][39]

The team was composed of:

Geology

[edit]

The Rising Star cave system lies in the Bloubank River valley, 2.2 km west of Sterkfontein Cave. It comprises an area of 250 × 150 m of mapped passageways situated in the core of a gently west-dipping (17°) open fold, and it is stratigraphically bound to a 15–20-metre-thick, stromatolitic dolomite horizon in the lower parts of the Monte Christo Formation. This dolomite horizon is largely chert-free but contains five thin (<10 cm) chert marker horizons that have been used to evaluate the relative position of chambers within the system. The upper contact is marked by a 1–1.3-metre-thick, capping chert unit that forms the roof of several large cave chambers.[5] The height above sea level is 1,450 m for the Dinaledi Chamber's floor.[44]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Rising Star Cave

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Rising Star Cave is a complex cave system formed in Malmani dolomites, located in the Bloubank River valley within the World Heritage Site, approximately 50 kilometers northwest of in Province, . The system encompasses over 2 kilometers of mapped passageways spanning an area of roughly 250 by 150 meters, featuring narrow chutes and chambers that pose significant challenges for exploration. It gained global prominence in 2013 when amateur cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker discovered a cache of hominin fossils in the remote Dinaledi Chamber, leading to the identification of a new species, , during an expedition directed by paleoanthropologist Lee Berger of the . The Dinaledi Chamber, accessible only through a narrow, vertical fissure requiring excavators to squeeze through passages as tight as 18 centimeters wide, yielded more than 1,550 fossil specimens representing at least 15 individuals of Homo naledi, an archaic hominin with a mosaic of primitive and modern traits, including a small brain size comparable to early australopiths but dental and skeletal features aligning it with the genus Homo. Subsequent excavations and analyses revealed additional remains, including a juvenile partial cranium discovered during the 2017–2018 field seasons, and evidence of symbolic behavior such as abstract engravings on cave walls dated to between 241,000 and 335,000 years ago, potentially created by Homo naledi itself. The fossils, dated to 236,000–335,000 years ago via uranium-thorium dating of flowstones overlying the deposits, include evidence from 2025 excavations supporting deliberate body disposal in this inaccessible chamber, amid ongoing debates about early hominin cognition and behavior. Rising Star Cave's discoveries have revolutionized by compressing the evolutionary timeline of the genus and highlighting the diversity of hominin forms coexisting in during the Middle Pleistocene, with ongoing surveys uncovering further chambers and artifacts that continue to illuminate human origins.

Location and Nomenclature

Geographical Setting

Rising Star Cave is situated in the province of , within the , a region renowned for its paleoanthropological significance. The cave lies in the Bloubank River valley, approximately 800 meters southwest of and about 50 kilometers northwest of . Its precise coordinates are 26°01'11.96"S, 27°42'45.97"E, placing it amid a landscape critical to understanding early . The site is at an elevation of around 1,450–1,480 meters above , contributing to its highland setting in a subtropical environment with seasonal rainfall influencing the local hydrology. The surrounding terrain features a gently west-dipping open in the Malmani of the Chuniespoort Group, forming part of an extensive system that includes nearby paleoanthropological sites such as and . This dolomitic formation, characterized by dissolution processes over millions of years, creates a network of interconnected caves and fissures that dominate the regional . Access to Rising Star Cave is challenging due to its remote location in rugged, vegetated terrain, necessitating specialized , ropes, and expertise to navigate the steep descents and narrow passages from the surface entrance. The cave's position within this protected landscape underscores its role in broader studies of hominin evolution, particularly highlighted by the 2013 discovery of fossils that elevated its international profile.

Names and Etymology

The cave system is designated as Rising Star Cave, a name originating from its recognition within the South African community prior to its association with major paleoanthropological discoveries. Historically, it has been referred to as Westminster Cave or Empire Cave by the community. Located in the World Heritage Site, this nomenclature highlights the site's position in a globally significant region for human origins research. The primary chamber of interest within Rising Star Cave is the Dinaledi Chamber, named by members of the 2013 expedition team led by Lee Berger. The term "Dinaledi" derives from the Sesotho language, where it means "stars," chosen to symbolize the chamber's profound isolation approximately 30 meters below the surface and about 80 meters horizontally from the nearest entrance, and the transformative importance of the fossils recovered there, akin to stars emerging from darkness. This naming convention also informed the species designation , with "naledi" signifying "star" in Sesotho, linking the anatomical finds directly to the site's . Scientific literature records alternative historical names such as Westminster or Empire Cave for the overall system, though it was mapped and explored by cavers for decades under its established title of Rising Star Cave. Post-2013, emphasis has shifted to formalized nomenclature for internal features like the Dinaledi Chamber, reflecting standard practices in to integrate local linguistic elements while ensuring precision in international scholarship.

Geological Characteristics

Formation and Lithology

Rising Star Cave is a classic example of development, formed through the chemical dissolution of soluble by acidic percolating from the surface. The cave system is hosted within the Malmani Subgroup of the Chuniespoort Group, part of the Neoarchaean Transvaal Supergroup, a thick sequence of sedimentary and volcanic rocks deposited approximately 2.5–2.6 billion years ago in a shallow epicontinental environment. The primary dissolution phase shaping the cave occurred much later, during the Pleistocene epoch (about 2.58 million to 11,700 years ago), when fluctuating water tables and from soil dissolution enlarged fractures and bedding planes into interconnected passages. The of the host rock consists predominantly of fine- to medium-grained, chert-poor dolomite layers belonging to the Monte Christo Formation within the Malmani Subgroup. These dolomite beds, typically 20–30 meters thick, exhibit low and permeability, which facilitated selective dissolution along joints and fissures. Secondary features include abundant speleothems such as stalactites, stalagmites, and columns, as well as extensive deposits and clastic sediment infills derived from surface . The cave system spans a mapped area of approximately 250 by 150 meters and is structurally controlled by a gentle 17° west-dipping fold, which influences the orientation of passages and chambers. In the broader regional context, Rising Star Cave forms part of the extensive landscape of the , where the Malmani dolomites have undergone prolonged speleogenesis over millions of years, creating a network of over 200 caves that preserve significant paleoenvironmental records. This geological setting, with its impermeable chert horizons acting as aquitards, has promoted the formation of and vadose zones conducive to trapping and mineral precipitation. The isolated chambers resulting from this evolution have enabled the preservation of delicate deposits without surface disturbance.

Internal Structure and Morphology

The Rising Star Cave system features a complex, maze-like network of chambers and passages, spanning a mapped extent of approximately 250 by 150 meters and reaching depths of 30 to 80 meters below the surface. This intricate layout includes multiple interconnected subsystems, with no evidence of large surface entrances facilitating easy access; instead, entry points are limited to narrow fissures and vertical drops that descend through the dolomitic rock. The cave's morphology is characterized by breakdown piles—accumulations of collapsed rock debris—and sediment-covered floors, in the absence of active running water, which contributes to a stable, dry internal environment. Prominent features include extremely narrow chutes and passages, some as constricted as 18 centimeters wide, requiring excavators to navigate vertical drops of up to 12 meters to reach isolated chambers. The Dinaledi Chamber, for instance, lies about 30 meters underground, accessible only via a tight, fissure-like route known as the Chute, with no natural light penetrating its confines and challenging access even for slender individuals. Similarly, the Lesedi Chamber forms a separate but interconnected subsystem, located farther from the main access routes, featuring comparable narrow passages and breakdown features that isolate it from external influences. These structural challenges, including pervasive darkness and extreme narrowness, restrict entry to those of slim build, emphasizing the cave's role in creating secluded depositional contexts that preserved ancient materials away from surface disturbances.

Exploration and Excavation History

Early Surveys and Mapping

The Rising Star Cave system, located within the in and also historically known as Westminster Cave, was first documented and entered by local cavers during the as part of regional surveys of the area's extensive formations. These initial explorations were conducted by recreational cavers affiliated with emerging South African speleological organizations, focusing on accessible entrances and surface-connected passages amid the broader effort to catalog caves in the region. Early entries emphasized safety assessments and basic reconnaissance, with no systematic paleoanthropological objectives at the time. By the 1970s and 1980s, members of the South African Speleological Association (SASA) and related groups intensified surveys, producing rudimentary maps of the cave's primary network. These efforts identified key features such as the main vertical shafts and horizontal galleries, but the system's intricate morphology—characterized by narrow squeezes and steep drops—restricted penetration beyond the upper levels. Occasional discoveries included fragmentary non-hominin fossils, such as bones of small mammals and preserved in traps, which provided incidental insights into the cave's depositional history but were not extensively studied. The mapped extent at this stage spanned an area of roughly 250 by 150 meters, serving primarily as a training site for novice cavers due to its proximity to . In the and early , South African clubs, including the Speleological Exploration Club (SEC), undertook more detailed mapping initiatives, employing compass and tape methods to delineate interconnections with nearby systems. Despite these advances, technological constraints—primarily reliance on manual rope descents, ladders, and headlamps without advanced surveying tools like laser scanners—meant that deeper, more hazardous chambers remained unexplored. No major paleoanthropological investigations occurred, as the focus stayed on speleological documentation rather than fossil prospecting, reflecting the cave's reputation as a challenging but non-paleontological site. These pre-2013 surveys laid essential groundwork for later expeditions.

2013 Fossil Discovery

In October 2013, recreational cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker, members of the Speleological Exploration Club (SEC), discovered the first hominin fossils while exploring an unmapped section of the Rising Star Cave system near , . Accessing the Dinaledi Chamber required navigating a narrow vertical chute roughly 12 meters deep, followed by a tight horizontal passage, leading to an isolated space approximately 30 meters below the surface. Upon reaching the chamber floor, they encountered surface scatters of hominin bones, including isolated teeth and fragments such as vertebrae, scattered across the sediment without any associated fauna or signs of disturbance. The cavers promptly reported their find to paleoanthropologist Lee Berger at the , who assembled a small team for an initial assessment. On October 8, 2013, Berger visited the site and confirmed the remains exhibited archaic hominin characteristics, distinct from known species in the region, marking the first indication of what would later be classified as a new species, . No stone tools, , or other artifacts were observed in the initial survey, highlighting the chamber's inaccessibility and the unusual accumulation of hominin material.

2013-2014 Expeditions

Following the initial discovery in the Dinaledi Chamber earlier in 2013, paleoanthropologist Lee led organized excavation efforts in the Rising Star Cave system to recover additional remains. In November 2013, recruited a specialized team of excavators via a public call on , seeking qualified individuals slender enough to navigate the cave's constricted passages, ultimately selecting six women dubbed the "Underground Astronauts": Hannah Morris, Marina Elliott, Elen Feuerriegel, Becca Peixotto, Alia Gurtov, and K. Lindsay Hunter. These excavators, chosen for their physical suitability and expertise in or related fields, were essential due to the narrow chutes and squeezes, some as tight as 20 cm wide, that restricted access to the chamber located approximately 30 meters underground. Excavations commenced in November 2013 and continued through March 2014, yielding over 1,550 hominin specimens through meticulous hand excavation in total , avoiding power tools to prevent site or structural . The team employed innovative methods including 3D laser scanning, , and real-time photographic and video documentation to map the chamber and record progress without excessive intrusion. To further protect the pristine environment, human entries into the Dinaledi Chamber were strictly limited, with only 48 documented by 2015.

Post-2014 Developments

Following the initial 2013-2014 expeditions, excavations in the Rising Star Cave system continued using similar methods involving small, specialized teams to navigate the narrow, vertical passages. Renewed efforts from 2017 to 2021 focused on the Dinaledi Chamber and surrounding subsystems, yielding additional fossils, including a juvenile partial cranium discovered around 2018, and expanded mapping of the cave's internal passages by over 300 linear meters, enhancing understanding of the site's connectivity without uncovering alternative entrances. In parallel, exploration of the Lesedi Chamber, initiated in 2016 and continuing through 2018, recovered H. naledi specimens representing at least three individuals in a similarly isolated area approximately 150 meters from the Dinaledi Chamber. This work built on initial surveys, confirming the chamber's inaccessibility and lack of surface connections, with fossils found in a shallow deposit. Recent activities from 2024 to 2025 have included further sampling to refine stratigraphic contexts and detailed path of entry routes into deep chambers, as detailed in a 2025 study by Dirk van Rooyen mapping the chute access to the Dinaledi subsystem. By 2025, the total collection from the system exceeded 2,500 scanned fossil fragments, incorporating materials from both chambers and additional localities. Technological advancements have supported these efforts, including integration of uranium-series dating, which in 2017 established a chronological range for associated sediments between 236,000 and 335,000 years ago, and high-resolution and for precise cave mapping and fossil documentation. The site, part of the World Heritage area, benefits from ongoing management by the site's authority, ensuring coordinated permitting and conservation.

Fossil Discoveries

Homo naledi in Dinaledi Chamber

The fossil assemblage of recovered from the Dinaledi Chamber represents the primary discovery site for this species, comprising over 1,550 specimens including 1,413 bones and 137 isolated teeth. These remains derive from at least 21 individuals spanning a range of ages, from infants and juveniles to adults, with multiple repetitions of most skeletal elements allowing for the reconstruction of nearly complete skeletons in some cases. Subsequent analyses, including identification of additional early juvenile remains, have increased the minimum number of individuals from the initial estimate of 15. The collection was unearthed during targeted expeditions in late 2013 and early 2014, focusing on surface scatters and limited excavations within the chamber. Key specimens highlight the morphological diversity within the assemblage. The holotype, designated Dinaledi Hominin 1 (DH1), consists of a partial calvaria, partial , and nearly complete from a presumed adult male. Paratype specimens, including DH2 through DH11, encompass elements such as partial femora, tibiae, humeri, radii, ulnae, ribs, vertebrae, and numerous hand and foot bones, alongside isolated teeth and cranial fragments from multiple individuals. These fossils exhibit a of primitive and derived traits, including an endocranial of approximately 465–610 cm³ (averaging around 560 cm³), curved phalanges suggestive of arboreal capabilities, and modern-like tarsal and metatarsal morphology in the feet. Taphonomic evidence indicates that the remains experienced little post-depositional disturbance, with fossils concentrated in a small area of about 8 m² on the chamber floor and showing no signs of significant fragmentation or dispersal by water flow. Notably, there are no tooth marks from carnivores, no coprolites, and an absence of large predator bones in the deposits, ruling out predation or scavenging as primary accumulation agents. The overall condition of the bones, including low levels of and minimal gnawing, points to an accumulation process distinct from or natural trap scenarios, with the remains preserved in a low-energy sedimentary context. The discovery and analysis of these fossils led to the formal description and naming of as a new species in the genus in September 2015, with the Dinaledi Chamber designated as the type locality. This assemblage stands as the largest single-species hominin collection from a single South African locality at the time of publication, providing a foundational for understanding the species' anatomy.

Remains in Lesedi Chamber

The Lesedi Chamber, located approximately 145 meters from the Dinaledi Chamber within the Rising Star cave system, yielded additional fossils during explorations initiated in November 2013 by cavers Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker. Excavations from 2013 to 2015 recovered 131 hominin specimens from this secondary chamber, which lies about 30 meters below the surface and lacks any direct connection to the Dinaledi Chamber or surface access. These remains represent at least three individuals, comprising two adults and one juvenile, based on skeletal element duplication and ontogenetic indicators such as dental development and proportions. Morphological analysis confirms that the Lesedi specimens align closely with those from the Dinaledi Chamber, exhibiting comparable features in and manual elements. For instance, the molars display similar occlusal patterns, cusp configurations, and crown heights to Dinaledi teeth, while hand bones such as phalanges show analogous curvature and robusticity indicative of the same variation. This parallelism underscores the isolated nature of the deposition, with fossils scattered across the chamber floor without associated , tools, or signs of disturbance, though the assemblage is notably less dense than the over 1,500 elements from Dinaledi. The discovery in Lesedi significantly expands the documented distribution of within the cave system's subsystems, indicating repeated or widespread presence rather than a single localized event. The age profile, including the juvenile alongside adults, raises the possibility of a related group, though minimum estimates suggest at least three individuals with potential for more based on spatial distribution and incomplete overlapping elements. Taphonomic evidence points to natural accumulation in a dark, inaccessible environment, mirroring the primary site's conditions but on a smaller scale, without any artifacts or external modifications observed. The Lesedi fossils have not been directly dated, but are presumed contemporaneous with those from Dinaledi based on stratigraphic and morphological similarities.

Dating Techniques and Chronology

The dating of fossils and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave has relied on multiple independent techniques to establish a chronological framework, as direct dating of the bones themselves is limited due to the absence of organic material suitable for methods like . The primary approach involved uranium-thorium (U-Th) dating of layers that cap and underlie the fossil-bearing sediments in the Dinaledi Chamber, providing bracketing ages for the deposition sequence. Complementary methods included electron spin resonance (ESR) analysis on from the fossils, which estimates the time since burial by measuring accumulated radiation damage, and cosmogenic nuclide dating (specifically 26Al/10Be burial dating) of sediment samples to determine how long they have been shielded from cosmic rays. Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of quartz grains in the sediments and paleomagnetic analysis of the deposits further corroborated these results by assessing the last exposure to light and the reversals, respectively. These techniques yielded consistent age estimates placing the fossils in the Middle Pleistocene, specifically between 236,000 and 335,000 years ago for the Dinaledi Chamber. U-Th of the above the fossils provided a minimum age of approximately 236 ka, while the underlying dated to around 335 ka, bracketing the sedimentary unit containing the remains. ESR results on teeth aligned closely, ranging from 246 to 335 ka, and cosmogenic burial ages for sediments fell between 250 and 320 ka, with OSL and paleomagnetic data supporting deposition during a normal magnetic polarity interval consistent with this timeframe. Challenges in arose from the lack of datable organic remains, necessitating indirect via enclosing geological features, which introduces potential uncertainties from post-depositional disturbances. Subsequent stratigraphic work in refined these constraints through additional U-Th of flowstones throughout the system, confirming no intrusions older than the layer and tightening the minimum age to approximately 241 ka, thus narrowing the entry window for to 241–335 ka. This refinement ruled out earlier hominin activity in the chambers and emphasized the reliability of the method despite the 's complex . The established chronology positions as a late-surviving species with primitive traits, overlapping temporally with the emergence of early Homo sapiens around 300,000 years ago in , thereby challenging linear models of hominin evolution and highlighting greater species diversity in the Middle Pleistocene. This temporal overlap suggests potential interactions or coexistence, prompting reevaluation of behavioral and morphological timelines in .

Evidence of Hominin Behavior

Rock Engravings

In 2023, researchers observed abstract engravings on the walls of the Hill Antechamber within the Dinaledi Subsystem of Rising Star Cave, South Africa. These markings consist of non-figurative patterns, including deeply incised cross-hatchings, isolated lines, and geometric shapes such as squares, triangles, crosses, and X forms, distributed across multiple panels. The engravings, measuring 10-20 cm in scale, were created by direct incision into the dolomite rock without the use of pigments and are located in narrow, hard-to-reach areas accessible only by prolonged crawling through tight passages. Uranium-series of thin crusts overlying the engravings established a minimum age range of 241,000 to 335,000 years, predating the earliest known symbolic behaviors attributed to Homo sapiens by over 100,000 years and representing the oldest potential hominin yet identified. This method analyzed multiple samples from the encrustations, confirming the engravings' antiquity while ruling out more recent origins. The chronological range overlaps with the estimated age of fossils from the same subsystem, dated to approximately 236,000-335,000 years ago. The engravings have been proposed as the work of Homo naledi based on the site's isolation, with no evidence of modern human entry into the Dinaledi Subsystem—such as artifacts, footprints, or tool scatters—and the physical demands of access aligning with the small-statured hominin's capabilities. Microscopic and 3D scanning analyses in a 2025 eLife publication confirmed their anthropogenic origin, distinguishing them from natural weathering or animal scratches through consistent groove depths, linear precision, and repetitive patterning inconsistent with geological processes. This would represent the first documented instance of symbolic engraving by a hominin species other than Homo sapiens, though the attribution remains debated.

Burial Practices

Recent excavations in the Dinaledi Chamber of Rising Star Cave have uncovered features suggesting deliberate body disposal by , including shallow depressions or pits in the cave floor that contain articulated skeletons of multiple individuals. These features, identified in 2024-2025 field seasons, show disruptions in the subsurface consistent with hominins digging holes to inter the remains, with sediments subsequently filling the pits. The skeletons exhibit minimal and lack marks, tooth punctures, or signs of post-mortem transport by , ruling out natural accumulation processes. Key burial features include at least four such pits in the Dinaledi Chamber, some containing remains of infants and juveniles alongside adults, indicating targeted disposal of vulnerable group members. The dark, remote location of these chambers—accessible only through narrow, vertical fissures—required intentional transport of bodies deep into the cave system, yet no evidence of habitation, such as tools, hearths, or food remains, has been found in the vicinity. Across the Dinaledi and Lesedi Chambers, remains of at least 15-20 individuals have been documented in these contexts, suggesting repeated mortuary behavior over time. Interpretations of these findings suggest ritualistic practices by around 240,000 years ago, challenging previous assumptions about the cognitive capabilities of small-brained hominins. This behavior implies advanced social and symbolic awareness, as the effort to carry deceased into inaccessible chambers without practical utility aligns with deliberate funerary rites. The of these burials aligns with nearby rock engravings, supporting a broader pattern of complex behavior in the cave system, although these interpretations are subject to ongoing scientific debate regarding the sufficiency of the evidence.

Indications of Fire Use

In 2022, researchers led by Lee Berger reported preliminary indications of fire use associated with Homo naledi within the deep chambers of the Rising Star Cave system, including the Dinaledi Chamber. Observations included soot deposits on cave ceilings and walls, as well as discolored surfaces potentially consistent with smoke exposure from fires. Charcoal fragments and ash layers were also documented in sediment profiles, suggesting possible hearth-like features, though no intact hearths have been confirmed. These traces, examined through 2022-2025 field and laboratory assessments, align temporally with the established age of Homo naledi remains, dated to 236,000–335,000 years ago via uranium-thorium dating of associated flowstones. No direct evidence of burned bones or artifacts was found, but indirect indicators such as thermally altered sediments point to low-intensity fires. The absence of surface-level combustion residues implies the use of portable light sources, such as torches, rather than stationary fires. Interpretations of this evidence suggest that fire control may have facilitated 's access to remote, pitch-black cave interiors, potentially aiding in navigation and supporting behavioral complexity. In 2023, Berger's team documented soot patterns and potential fire-lit pathways through expeditions, reinforcing claims of intentional fire management for illumination. However, these findings remain preliminary, lack peer-reviewed confirmation, and are part of broader contested claims about behaviors.

Scientific Significance

Contributions to Paleoanthropology

The discovery of Homo naledi in the Rising Star Cave system has significantly advanced paleoanthropology by introducing a new species that exhibits a mosaic of primitive and derived traits, suggesting a more complex and bushy model of human evolution rather than a linear progression. With an estimated brain size of 465–610 cm³—comparable to earlier australopiths but much smaller than modern humans (Homo sapiens)—H. naledi retained archaic features like curved fingers suited for climbing, while displaying modern-like adaptations in its hands, feet, and pelvis that indicate bipedal efficiency and precision manipulation. This combination challenges traditional views of evolutionary advancement tied to increasing brain size, as H. naledi likely coexisted with early H. sapiens ancestors in subequatorial Africa during the Middle Pleistocene, dated to approximately 236,000–335,000 years ago. The ' behavioral insights further reshape understandings of cognitive , demonstrating that small-brained hominins could engage in complex actions such as deliberate body disposal, symbolic engravings, and possible fire use, thereby decoupling advanced behaviors from encephalization. These findings imply that traits like ritualistic practices and environmental manipulation emerged independently across hominin lineages, broadening the scope of what constitutes "human-like" . Over 1,500 fossils from at least 18 individuals, primarily from the Dinaledi Chamber, provide an unprecedented sample for analyzing intraspecific variation and in a single , enabling detailed reconstructions of morphology and lifestyle that were previously limited by fragmentary ; as of September 2025, the total exceeds 2,000 specimens following additional discoveries supporting intentional disposal. This body of work has reshaped Middle Pleistocene timelines by highlighting the persistence of archaic forms alongside more derived ones, prompting reevaluations of hominin diversity and dispersal in Africa. Key publications from 2015 to 2025, including the initial description in eLife and subsequent analyses in Nature Ecology & Evolution, have garnered high citation impacts, influencing models of evolutionary stasis and adaptation. Beyond academia, the discoveries have enhanced public engagement through documentaries like Dawn of Humanity (2015), which chronicled the initial excavation, and Unknown: Cave of Bones (2023), exploring behavioral evidence, alongside National Geographic initiatives that democratized access to paleoanthropological research.

Ongoing Debates and Controversies

One major point of contention surrounds the attribution of rock engravings and burial practices to Homo naledi, with critics arguing that there is insufficient direct evidence, such as associated stone tools, to link these features exclusively to this species. A 2023 analysis in the Journal of Human Evolution by Domínguez-Rodrigo and colleagues reviewed the available data from the Rising Star Cave and concluded that no convincing scientific evidence supports H. naledi as the author of the engravings or intentional burials, suggesting instead that later hominins, like Homo sapiens, or even natural processes could be responsible. This debate highlights the challenges in establishing authorship in a cave system with multiple occupation layers and no artifacts directly tied to the markings or skeletal accumulations. Dating the features associated with H. naledi has also sparked challenges, particularly regarding uranium-series methods applied to encasing engravings, where potential contamination or open-system in the speleothems could skew results. Papers from 2023 to 2025, including critiques in peer-reviewed journals, have debated whether these dates reliably bracket the engravings to 241,000–335,000 years ago, emphasizing uncertainties in uranium-thorium migration that might allow post-depositional alterations. Relatedly, the skeletal accumulations interpreted as s face over versus natural processes, with 2023–2025 studies arguing that sediment traps, water flow, or activity could explain the deposits without invoking deliberate hominin ; however, September 2025 analyses of new excavations yielding ~90 additional skeletal elements, including articulated bones from juveniles in dry, remote chambers lacking marks, provide further support for cultural practices, though debates persist. Methodological concerns further fuel controversies, including Lee Berger's approach to rapid publication through preprints and reviewed preprints in eLife, which some view as prioritizing publicity over rigorous peer review. Critics have pointed to potential selection biases in excavator teams, composed largely of non-specialist "underground astronauts" chosen for their small stature to navigate tight passages, leading to allegations of hasty work that damaged bones during initial 2013–2015 extractions. By 2025, claims of fire use—based on preliminary observations of burned sediments in deep chambers and correlational evidence of hearths—lacked peer-reviewed consensus on controlled hominin fire-making, with ongoing debates over natural versus anthropogenic origins. Looking ahead, resolving these issues will require additional sediment core sampling to clarify depositional contexts and test for artificial modifications, though genetic analysis remains infeasible due to the remains' age exceeding viable DNA preservation limits. Comparative studies with other Pleistocene sites, such as those featuring Homo erectus accumulations, are also needed to contextualize whether H. naledi's features indicate unique behaviors or parallel natural phenomena.

References

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