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Stan Frankel
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Stanley Phillips Frankel (1919 – May, 1978) was an American computer scientist. He worked in the Manhattan Project and developed various computers as a consultant.
Early life
[edit]He was born in Los Angeles, attended graduate school at the University of Rochester, received his PhD in physics from the University of California, Berkeley,[1] and began his career as a post-doctoral student under J. Robert Oppenheimer at University of California, Berkeley in 1942.
Career
[edit]Frankel helped develop computational techniques used in the nuclear research taking place at the time, notably making some of the early calculations relating to the diffusion of neutrons in a critical assembly of uranium with Eldred Nelson.[2] He joined the T (Theoretical) Division of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos in 1943. His wife Mary Frankel was also hired to work as a human computer in the T Division.[3] While at Los Alamos, Frankel and Nelson organized a group of scientists' wives, including Mary, to perform some of the repetitive calculations using Marchant and Friden desk calculators to divide the massive calculations required for the project.[2] This became Group T-5 under New York University mathematician Donald Flanders when he arrived in the late summer of 1943.
Mathematician Dana Mitchell noticed that the Marchant calculators broke under heavy use and persuaded Frankel and Nelson to order IBM 601 punched card machines.[4][2] This experience led to Frankel's interest in the then-dawning field of digital computers.[citation needed] In August 1945, Frankel and Nick Metropolis traveled to the Moore School of Engineering in Pennsylvania to learn how to program the ENIAC computer. That fall they helped design a calculation that would determine the likelihood of being able to develop a fusion weapon. Edward Teller used the ENIAC results to prepare a report in the spring of 1946 that answered this question in the affirmative.
After losing his security clearance (and thus his job) during the red scare of the early 1950s, Frankel became an independent computer consultant. He was responsible for designing the CONAC computer for the Continental Oil Company during 1954–1957 and the LGP-30 single-user desk computer in 1956, which was licensed from a computer he designed at Caltech called MINAC.[5] The LGP-30 was moderately successful, selling over 500 units. He served as a consultant to Packard Bell Computer on the design of the PB-250 computer.
Later in his career, he became involved in the development of desktop electronic calculators. The first calculator project he was involved in the development of was the SCM Marchant Cogito 240 and 240SR electronic calculators introduced in 1965. In the interest of improving upon the design of what became the SCM Cogito 240 and 240SR calculators, Frankel developed a new machine he called NIC-NAC, which was based on a microcoded architecture. NIC-NAC was built in prototype form in his home as a proof-of-concept and the machine worked well. Due to its microcoded implementation, the machine was very efficient in terms the number of components it required. Frankel, though his connections at SCM, was put in contact with Diehl, a West-German calculating machine company well-known in Europe for its exquisitely designed electro-mechanical calculators. Diehl wanted to break into the electronic calculator marketplace, but did not have the expertise itself. Frankel was contracted to develop a desktop electronic calculator for Diehl, and moved to West Germany to undertake the project. The project resulted in a calculator called the Diehl Combitron. The Combitron was a desktop printing electronic calculator that was also user programmable. The calculator utilized the concepts behind NIC-NAC's microcoded architecture, loading its microcode into a magnetostrictive delay line at power-up via an internal punched stainless steel tape that contained the microcode. Another magnetostrictive delay line contained the working registers, memory registers, and user program. The Combitron design was later augmented to include the ability to attach external input/output devices, with this machine called the Combitron S. Frankel's microcoded architecture would serve as the basis for a number of follow-on calculators developed and marketed by Diehl. SCM later became an OEM customer of Diehl, marketing the Combitron as the SCM Marchant 556PR.
Scientific papers
[edit]Frankel published a number of scientific papers throughout his career. Some of them explored the use of statistical sampling techniques and machine driven solutions. In a 1947 paper in Physical Review, he and Metropolis predicted the utility of computers in replacing manual integration with iterative summation as a problem solving technique. As head of a new Caltech digital computing group he worked with PhD candidate Berni Alder in 1949–1950 to develop what is now known as Monte Carlo analysis. They used techniques that Enrico Fermi had pioneered in the 1930s. Due to a lack of local computing resources, Frankel travelled to England in 1950 to run Alder's project on the Manchester Mark 1 computer. Unfortunately, Alder's thesis advisor was unimpressed, so Alder and Frankel delayed publication of their results until 1955, in the Journal of Chemical Physics. This left the major credit for the technique to a parallel project by a team including Teller and Metropolis who published similar work in the same journal in 1953.
In September, 1959, Frankel published a paper in IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers proposing a microwave computer that used travelling-wave tubes as digital storage devices, similar to, but faster than the acoustic delay lines used in the early 1950s. Frankel published a paper on measuring the thickness of soap films in the Journal of Applied Physics in 1966.[6]
Publications
[edit]- Frankel, S. Phillips, “Elementary Derivation of Thermal Diffusion”, Physical Review, Volume 57, Number 7, April 1, 1940, p. 661.
- Frankel, S. and N Metropolis, “Calculations in the Liquid-Drop Model of Fission”, Physical Review, Volume 72, Number 10, November 15, 1947, p. 914–925.
- Frankel, Stanley P., “Convergence Rates of Iterative Treatments of Partial Differential Equations”, Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, Volume 4, 1950, p. 65–75.
- Frankel, S. P., “The Logical Design of a Simple General Purpose Computer”, IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers, March 1957, p. 5–14.
- Frankel, S. P., “On the Minimum Logical Complexity Required for a General Purpose Computer”, IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers, December 1958, p. 282–284.
- Frankel, Stanley P., “A Logic Design for a Microwave Computer”, IRE Transactions on Electronic Computers, September 1959, p. 271–276.
- Frankel, Stanley P. and Karol J. Mysels, “On the ‘Dimpling’ During the Approach of Two Surfaces”, Journal of Physical Chemistry, Volume 66, January 1962, p. 190–191.
- Frankel, Stanley P. and Karol J. Mysels, “Simplified Theory of Reflectometric Thickness Measurement of Structured Soap and Related Films”, Journal of Applied Physics, Volume 37, Number 10, September 1966, p. 3725–3728.
References
[edit]- ^ Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project, edited by Cynthia C. Kelly, World Scientific Publishing, 2006, ISBN 981-256-418-7.
- ^ a b c Seidel, Robert W. "Evolving From Calculators to Computers". LANL Research Library. Los Alamos National Laboratory History Publications. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
- ^ Howes, Ruth H.; Herzenberg, Caroline L. (2003). Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project. Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press. pp. 99–100. ISBN 9781592131921.
- ^ Trinity by the Numbers: The Computing Effort that Made Trinity Possible
- ^ Research, United States Office of Naval (1953). A survey of automatic digital computers. Office of Naval Research, Dept. of the Navy. p. 65.
- ^ Stanley P. Frankel and Karol J. Mysels, "Simplified Theory of Reflectometric Thickness Measurement of Structured Soap and Related Films", Journal of Applied Physics, September 1966, Volume 37, Issue 10, pp. 3725–3728.
External links
[edit]- Story of Stan P. Frankel, designer of the LGP-30, with photos.
- U.S. patent 3,518,629 Recirculating Memory Timing, filed February, 1964, issued June, 1970
- Surely you're joking, Mr. Feynman! – R. Feynman recalled Frankel's contribution to Manhattan Project
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Stan Frankel
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Early Life and Education
Birth and Family
Stanley Phillips Frankel was born in Los Angeles, California, in 1919.[4][1] Frankel married Mary P. Frankel, a mathematician who served as one of the "human computers" performing calculations at Los Alamos Laboratory during the Manhattan Project.[5] The couple arrived at Los Alamos in the spring of 1943, where Mary worked under the supervision of her husband and others in the computing group.[5]Academic Background
Stanley Frankel earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1938.[4] He subsequently enrolled as a graduate student at the University of Rochester, where he published his first scientific paper in 1940 on a topic in physics.[4] Frankel completed his PhD in physics at the University of California, Berkeley, studying under J. Robert Oppenheimer.[2][1] In the spring of 1942, prior to his involvement in the Manhattan Project, he served as a postdoctoral researcher at Berkeley, continuing work in theoretical physics.[4] His training emphasized computational approaches to physical problems, laying the groundwork for his later contributions to early computing.[2]Professional Career
Manhattan Project Involvement
Stanley Phillips Frankel joined the Theoretical Division (T Division) of the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos in spring 1943 as a physicist, having previously been a student of J. Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley.[6][1] In collaboration with fellow theoretical physicist Eldred C. Nelson, Frankel co-led the establishment of a human computing program to handle the intensive numerical calculations required for nuclear weapon design, drawing on their pre-war experience with desk calculators.[6] Frankel organized teams of human "computers"—primarily women with mathematical training—into assembly-line workflows to perform complex implosion hydrodynamics simulations essential for the plutonium bomb design, such as the "Fat Man" device tested at Trinity on July 16, 1945, and deployed over Nagasaki.[6][1] These teams initially relied on electromechanical desk calculators, including Marchant models, proposed by Frankel and Nelson to equip the T-5 computational group under Donald "Moll" Flanders, enabling the division of massive differential equation sets into tractable steps for iterative solution.[6] As computational demands grew, Frankel oversaw the integration of IBM punched-card tabulating machines to accelerate data processing and tabulation for nuclear research outputs.[1] In August 1945, amid the project's final phases, Frankel traveled to the Aberdeen Proving Ground to program the ENIAC electronic computer alongside Nicholas Metropolis, adapting it for preliminary thermonuclear (fusion) weapon yield calculations that were completed by fall 1945 and later informed Edward Teller's 1946 report on the "Super" concept.[1] This exposure to ENIAC marked an early pivot in Frankel's career toward electronic computation, though his Los Alamos efforts primarily advanced fission implosion modeling critical to the project's success.[6]Transition to Computational Physics
Stanley Frankel's engagement with computational methods began during his tenure in the Theoretical Division at Los Alamos in 1943, where the exigencies of modeling implosion hydrodynamics and neutron transport for the plutonium bomb necessitated unprecedented numerical efforts beyond analytical solutions. Initially, he co-led with Eldred Nelson the T-5 group of human computers, primarily women with mathematical training, who used Marchant desk calculators for iterative calculations such as spherical harmonics expansions and diffusion equations.[6] By late 1943, as manual computations proved insufficient for the scale required—exemplified by the need to track over a million zones in hydrodynamic simulations—Frankel facilitated the adoption of IBM punched-card tabulating machines, establishing the T-6 group. These electromechanical devices, including sorters, multipliers, and tabulators, enabled efficient data processing and algebraic manipulations, outperforming human teams in reliability and volume, thus marking the shift from artisanal calculation to mechanized data handling in physics problem-solving.[6][1] Frankel's proficiency with IBM equipment grew rapidly; by early 1944, he had mastered their application to nuclear physics computations, recognizing their potential to approximate solutions to partial differential equations central to bomb design. This hands-on experience catalyzed his transition, evolving theoretical physics from symbolic manipulation to empirical simulation via algorithmic iteration.[7] In August 1945, Frankel traveled with Nicholas Metropolis to the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School to program the ENIAC for thermonuclear feasibility studies, executing preliminary models of fusion reactions that informed Edward Teller's 1946 report. This foray into electronic digital computation, processing vast arrays of difference equations, underscored computation's role in probing physical phenomena intractable by pen-and-paper methods.[1] Postwar, Frankel's advocacy for computational tools persisted; in a 1947 Physical Review article, he forecasted digital computers' efficacy for successive approximations in quantum mechanics and hydrodynamics. Despite losing security clearance in early 1949 owing to familial political associations, he advanced Monte Carlo techniques with Bernie Alder for plasma simulations, publishing results in 1955 that demonstrated statistical sampling's power for many-body problems in chemical physics.[1][4]Innovations in Early Computing
Following World War II, Stanley Frankel contributed to early electronic computing by programming the ENIAC for Los Alamos National Laboratory calculations, including simulations of implosion dynamics for thermonuclear weapons, after training at the Moore School of Engineering in August 1945 alongside Nicholas Metropolis.[8][9] This work marked one of the first uses of a general-purpose electronic computer for complex scientific computations, leveraging ENIAC's 18,000 vacuum tubes to perform hydrogen bomb-related hydrodynamics problems that exceeded the capabilities of prior mechanical tabulators.[10] In the mid-1950s, Frankel pioneered compact, general-purpose computers, designing the MINAC in 1954 at Caltech as a minimalistic system using 113 vacuum tubes, germanium diodes from Hughes Aircraft, and magnetic drum memory to enable affordable scientific computation.[4][11] This breadboard prototype demonstrated feasibility for small-scale machines, influencing subsequent developments by emphasizing simplicity and cost reduction over the scale of room-sized predecessors like ENIAC.[3] Frankel's MINAC design evolved into the LGP-30, introduced in 1956 by Librascope, Inc., as one of the earliest desk-side computers capable of standalone operation without extensive support infrastructure, featuring a 4,096-word magnetic drum memory, 113 vacuum tubes, and 1,400 diodes for logic functions.[12][1] Priced at approximately $39,000, the LGP-30 targeted individual researchers and small organizations, computing at 3-11 kilocycles per second and supporting floating-point arithmetic, which broadened access to digital computation beyond large institutions.[1] During 1954-1957, Frankel also led the development of the CONAC computer for Continental Oil Company, adapting principles from his prior designs to create specialized systems for industrial data processing and simulation, further advancing practical applications of early digital technology in non-military sectors.[13][1] These innovations underscored Frankel's focus on miniaturization and usability, contributing to the trajectory toward personal computing by prioritizing engineer-accessible hardware over centralized mainframes.[4]Computer Design and Development
Stanley Frankel designed the MINAC, a minimal general-purpose computer, at the California Institute of Technology in 1954.[14] The MINAC utilized only 113 vacuum tubes for logic and arithmetic operations, supplemented by solid-state diode logic to enhance reliability and reduce power consumption, along with a magnetic drum memory measuring 6.5 inches in diameter and 7 inches long for storage.[3] Input and output were handled via a Flexowriter terminal with punched paper tape.[3] A breadboard prototype demonstrated the feasibility of this compact design, which prioritized simplicity and efficiency for scientific and engineering computations.[4] The logical architecture of the MINAC formed the basis for the LGP-30, a commercially produced desk-sized computer licensed by Librascope, a division of General Precision, and introduced in 1956.[1] Weighing approximately 800 pounds and costing $47,000, the LGP-30 represented an early single-user system, with over 500 units sold worldwide, including 45 in Europe.[3] Its design emphasized affordability and accessibility compared to larger room-filling machines of the era, marking a step toward personal computing.[14] Concurrently, from 1954 to 1957, Frankel led the design of the CONAC computer specifically for the Continental Oil Company, tailoring it for industrial computational needs such as data processing and simulations.[1] This project underscored his expertise in customizing hardware for practical applications beyond academic research.[13] In 1968, Frankel received a patent for a general-purpose digital computer design, reflecting ongoing innovations in computational architecture.[15]Publications and Research Output
Key Scientific Papers
Frankel's contributions to numerical methods and early computing are exemplified in his 1950 paper, "Convergence Rates of Iterative Treatments of Partial Differential Equations," published in Mathematics of Computation. This work examined the efficiency of relaxation methods like Gauss-Seidel for solving elliptic PDEs, providing error bounds and convergence criteria that informed subsequent computational algorithms in physics simulations. A pivotal application of probabilistic computing appears in the 1953 collaboration with Berni J. Alder, "Radial Distribution Function Calculated by the Monte-Carlo Method for a Hard Sphere Fluid," in The Journal of Chemical Physics. Using IBM punched-card machines, they simulated the radial distribution function for a dense fluid of hard spheres via random sampling, validating the Monte Carlo approach for equilibrium statistical mechanics and demonstrating its viability for problems intractable by analytic means.[16] In computer architecture, Frankel's 1957 paper, "The Logical Design of a Simple General Purpose Computer," detailed the MINAC—a compact, transistor-based stored-program machine with 40-bit words and magnetic core memory—emphasizing modular logic for arithmetic and control units to enable general-purpose computation on limited hardware. Similarly, his 1959 "A Logic Design for a Microwave Computer" explored high-speed vacuum-tube circuits using traveling-wave tubes for logic gates, aiming to achieve microwave-frequency operations for advanced signal processing.[17] These designs reflected Frankel's shift toward practical, low-cost computing systems post-Manhattan Project.Computational Methods and Reports
Frankel contributed to early numerical methods for neutron transport calculations during the Manhattan Project. In 1942, alongside Eldred Nelson, he developed the end-point method, an analytic approximation for solving the integral form of the neutron transport equation, which facilitated estimates of neutron multiplication in fission systems using manual computations.[18] This technique addressed limitations in diffusion theory by incorporating endpoint approximations for neutron paths, enabling practical assessments of criticality despite the absence of electronic computers at Los Alamos.[18] Postwar, Frankel's focus shifted to rigorous analysis of iterative solvers for partial differential equations (PDEs), central to computational simulations in physics. In his 1950 paper, "Convergence Rates of Iterative Treatments of Partial Differential Equations," published in Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation, he examined the asymptotic convergence behavior of methods such as the Jacobi iteration, Gauss-Seidel, and successive over-relaxation (SOR) for elliptic PDEs on rectangular domains.[19] Frankel derived explicit bounds on relaxation factors, demonstrating that optimal SOR parameters could accelerate convergence by factors exceeding those of simpler schemes, with applications to Poisson's equation and related boundary value problems.[19] His analysis, grounded in eigenvalue estimates of iteration matrices, provided foundational insights for numerical PDE solvers, influencing subsequent work on preconditioning and multigrid methods.[20] Frankel also advanced Monte Carlo techniques for statistical simulations in computational physics. At the California Institute of Technology, he collaborated with Berni Alder on pioneering applications of Monte Carlo methods to model liquid properties using mechanical computers, adapting probabilistic sampling—initially inspired by Enrico Fermi's neutron diffusion work—to generate equilibrium configurations and compute transport coefficients.[4] These efforts, extending wartime probabilistic calculations, laid groundwork for molecular dynamics and stochastic simulation in materials science, though Frankel's specific reports on implementation details remain tied to internal Caltech computations rather than standalone publications.[21] Additionally, he compiled bibliographies on computing machinery, documenting emerging hardware and software for scientific computation in the late 1940s.[22]Later Life, Legacy, and Recognition
Personal Life and Death
Stanley Phillips Frankel was born on June 6, 1919, in Los Angeles, California.[23] He married Mary Frankel, who joined him at Los Alamos Laboratory during the Manhattan Project and supervised the initial human computing group organized by Frankel and Eldred Nelson.[8] Limited public records exist regarding other aspects of his family life, with no documented children.[24] In his later years, Frankel resided in Los Angeles and consulted on early computer developments, witnessing the emergence of microcomputers like the Altair and TRS-80 before his death.[4] Frankel died on May 2, 1978, in Los Angeles, California, at the age of 58.[25] The cause of death is not specified in available sources.[13]