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World TeamTennis
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| Most recent season or competition: 2021 | |
 | |
| Sport | Team tennis |
|---|---|
| Founded | 1974 |
| Ceased | 2021 |
| Owners | Fred Luddy and Eric Davidson |
| COO | Allen Hardison |
| No. of teams | 9 |
| Country |  United States |
| Headquarters | Rancho Santa Fe, California, United States |
| Last champion | Orange County Breakers |
| Most titles | Sacramento Capitals (6) Washington Kastles (6) |
| Broadcasters | US CBS CBS Sports Network (also available in CAN) ESPN ESPN+ Tennis Channel Outside US and CAN FITE TV TennisONE Latin America Claro TV China Youku |
| Official website | WTT.com |
World TeamTennis (WTT) was a mixed-gender professional tennis league played with a team format in the United States, which was founded in 1973.
The league's season normally took place in the summer months. Players from the ATP and WTA would often take a break from their tour schedules to partake in World TeamTennis.
WTT was the first professional sports league to grant equal status to each man and woman competing for their teams.[1]
Many top tennis players have participated in the league over the years, including Billie Jean King, Rod Laver, Björn Borg, Ilie Nastase, Chris Evert, John McEnroe, Evonne Goolagong, Jimmy Connors, Martina Navratilova,[2] Andre Agassi, Pete Sampras, Michael Chang, Serena Williams, Venus Williams, Lindsay Davenport, Kim Clijsters, Martina Hingis, John Isner, Sam Querrey, Sloane Stephens, Naomi Osaka, and Frances Tiafoe.
Format
[edit]Originally played on a no-line court, each match consisted of five sets. Each set featured a different configuration (men's singles, men's doubles, women's singles, women's doubles, and mixed doubles). Prior to each match, coaches would decide the order in which the sets would be played. Each player on a team usually played in at least one of the five sets. Scoring was no-advantage; there was no requirement to win a game by two points; at deuce, whoever scores the next point wins the game. The first team to reach five games wins each set. A nine-point tiebreaker is played if a set reaches four-all. One point is awarded for each game won. If necessary, extended play and a supertiebreaker were played to determine the winner of the match.
The original league format included a four-colored tennis court, a 44-contest season, and teams of at least two men and two women. A match consisted of the first player or team to win five games, with a nine-point tiebreaker at four-all, and no-ad scoring in women's singles and doubles, men's singles and doubles, and mixed doubles.
Courts
[edit]For much of World Team Tennis' history, its distinct court was an instant symbol for fans to recognize what they were watching. The iconic four-color (calico) court originated in the early 1970s and was unveiled for the third season in 1976.[3] It was originally created to eliminate court lines (no-line court). Originally, the service boxes were blue and green, the baseline area brown and the doubles alleys maroon.[4] These colors were chosen to represent the different tennis court surfaces: green for grass, blue for hard, maroon for clay and brown for dirt.
The league's technicolor playing surface served as a trendsetter for the rest of the tennis world. The Indian Wells Masters has purple courts.[5]
Over time, lines were introduced to WTT's courts, purple replaced the brown and they reverted to traditional solid-colored courts. But in 2006, the league returned full-time to the signature calico/checkerboard pattern.[6]
In 2019, the league made efforts to modernize and update its look and branding, including a switch to a deep blue playing surface and gray outer court. In partnership with DecoTurf, these colors were determined to be the best for livestreaming and television.[7]
First league
[edit]Founding
[edit]WTT was founded in 1973 by Dennis Murphy, Dick Butera, Fred Barman, Jordan Kaiser, and attorney and promoter Larry King, each of whom organized and owned the various participating teams of the fledgling professional tennis league. Murphy had previously founded the World Hockey Association, and gave a number of WHA club owners preferential options on WTT franchises.
Charles "Chuck" Reichblum (now popularly known as "Dr. Knowledge"),[8] industrialist John H. Hillman III, and lawyer William "Bill" Sutton, who became the owners of the Pittsburgh Triangles, had, in 1972, founded the similar National Tennis League (NTL), a forerunner to WTT and Reichblum's brainchild. Founding members of WTT were reported to have been invited to join the NTL prior to formation of the competing WTT in 1973.[9][10]
Teams, 1974–1978
[edit]In 1974, Billie Jean King began the first WTT season by securing the professional women tennis players. Arthur Ashe and Wilt Chamberlain helped to secure the professional men tennis players. Two WTT players, Connors and Goolagong, were not allowed to participate in the 1974 French Open due to their associations with WTT.[11][12] Connors' exclusion from the French Open denied him the opportunity to become the first male player since Rod Laver to win all four Major singles titles in a calendar year.
The league began play in May 1974, with George MacCall as Commissioner of the 16 teams, many with tennis-themed nicknames. The Eastern Division consisted of the Atlantic Section: Baltimore Banners, Boston Lobsters, New York Sets, Philadelphia Freedoms; and the Central Section: Cleveland Nets, Detroit Loves, Pittsburgh Triangles, Toronto-Buffalo Royals. The Western Division consisted of the Gulf Plains Section: Chicago Aces, Florida Flamingos, Houston E-Z Riders, Minnesota Buckskins; and the Pacific Section: Denver Racquets, Hawaii Leis, Los Angeles Strings, San Francisco Golden Gaters.
Following the initial 1974 season several teams moved, folded, or failed to meet the financial requirements of the league, and the league also added one expansion team, the San Diego Friars. For the 1975 season World Team Tennis consisted of 10 teams, and it remained with that number of teams throughout the rest of the existence of the first league.[13]
The teams that played from 1974 to 1978 were:
- Boston Lobsters (1974)
- Chicago Aces (1974)
- Cincinnati (never played) / Cleveland Nets (1974–1976) / Cleveland-Pittsburgh Nets (1977) / New Orleans Sun Belt Nets (1978)
- Dallas (1979 expansion franchise – never played)[14]
- Denver Racquets (1974) / Phoenix Racquets (1975–1978)
- Detroit Loves (1974) / Indiana Loves (1975–1978)
- Golden Gate Otters (never played) / San Francisco Golden Gaters (1974–1978)
- Houston E-Z Riders (1974)
- Los Angeles (1979 expansion franchise – never played)[14]
- Los Angeles Strings (1974–1978)
- Minnesota Buckskins (1974)
- New York Sets (1974–1976) / New York Apples (1977–1978)[15]
- Pennsylvania Keystones (never played) / Soviet National Team (1977, often simply called "The Soviets") / Anaheim Oranges (1978)
- Philadelphia Freedoms (1974) / Boston Lobsters (1975–1978) (Elton John, a friend of Billie Jean King, wrote the hit single "Philadelphia Freedom" as a theme song for his favorite team.[16])
- Phoenix (never played) / Baltimore Banners (1974)
- Pittsburgh Triangles (1974–1976)
- St. Louis (never played) / Florida Flamingos (1974)
- San Diego (1979 expansion franchise – never played)[14]
- San Diego Friars (1975–1978)
- San Diego Swingers (never played) / Hawaii Leis (1974–1976) / Sea-Port Cascades (1977) / Seattle Cascades (1978)
- Toronto-Buffalo Royals (1974) / Hartford Royals (never played)
WTT was the first professional sports experience for Jerry Buss (eventual owner of the NBA's Los Angeles Lakers and the NHL's Los Angeles Kings), and for Bob Kraft (eventual owner of the NFL's New England Patriots and MLS's New England Revolution).
All-star games and MVPs
[edit]WTT also held annual All-Star games for the seasons from 1975 to 1978. Marty Riessen (Cleveland) and Greer Stevens (Boston) won Most Valuable Players (MVP) honors for the inaugural all-star gala won by the East, 28–21, at the Inglewood Forum in Los Angeles. In 1976 the West All-Stars, led by Chris Evert and Betty Stöve, capped an incredible comeback when they defeated Billie Jean King and Evonne Goolagong in a super tiebreaker, 5–4, giving the West a stunning 28–27 overtime victory at the Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum. After trailing at one stage by 24–17, the West, led by Stove and Dianne Fromholtz, won the final set plus two games in overtime to draw the West All-Stars even at 27.[17] Tom Okker (San Francisco) and Dianne Fromholtz (Los Angeles) won MVP honors that year. In the 1977 All Star Game held at the San Diego Sports Arena, Björn Borg (Cleveland–Pittsburgh) and Betty Stöve (Seattle–Portland) captured MVP awards as the East bested the West, 23–18. WTT held its final All-Star event in Las Vegas in 1978.[18]
Ending
[edit]The first league ended play in 1978.
Second league
[edit]1981–1991
[edit]League play resumed in 1981 as TeamTennis, with four California teams, expanding to eight teams in 1982. In 2005, the league had twelve teams.
In 1984, Billie Jean King became Commissioner and major owner of the league, following her retirement from tournament tennis competition.
In 1985 a recreational league for non-professionals was added, which was co-branded with the professional league.
1992–1999
[edit]In 1992, the name of the league was changed back to World TeamTennis.
- Minnesota Penguins, 1993
- Idaho Sneakers, 1994–1997
- New Jersey Stars, 1987–1995 (relocated and became the Delaware Smash)
- Phoenix Smash, 1992–1994
2000–2021
[edit]In 2000 the current logo was adopted. In February 2001, Billie Jean King retired as commissioner and Ilana Kloss became the new commissioner.
In 2005 and 2006 the league consisted of 12 teams and in 2007 the Hartford FoxForce ceased operations. Prior to the 2008 season, the Houston Wranglers ceased operations and the Washington Kastles joined the league. In the 2009 season, 10 teams competed: Boston, New York Buzz, New York Sportime, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Kansas City, Newport Beach, Sacramento, Springfield, and St. Louis. Sacramento won the year-end championship six times.
Before the start of the 2011 season the New York Buzz and the New York Sportimes merged into one New York team, the Sportimes.[19] During the 2011 season the Washington Kastles completed a perfect 16–0 schedule, winning their second championship in three seasons.
In 2012, the Washington Kastles completed their second consecutive perfect season, going 16–0 for the second season in a row to become the first professional sports franchise to go two complete seasons without a loss. Their 32-match winning streak is one shy of the major professional sports record of 33 consecutive wins set by the 1971–72 Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association. They began the next season with 2 wins making their streak 34 games, setting the new record.
In 2013, World TeamTennis was renamed Mylan World TeamTennis after Mylan, a generics and specialty pharmaceuticals company, signed a three-year deal as the title sponsor.[20] The Kansas City Explorers relocated to Irving, Texas, and became the Texas Wild. On November 21, 2013, the Orange County Breakers were sold, relocated to Austin, Texas and renamed the Austin Aces.[21] On January 16, 2014, the New York Sportimes were sold, relocated to San Diego and renamed the San Diego Aviators.[22] On February 4, 2014, the Sacramento Capitals were relocated to Las Vegas and renamed the Las Vegas Neon.[23] On March 5, 2014, the Las Vegas Neon franchise was terminated, leaving the league with seven teams.[24]
On February 23, 2015, WTT announced that a new ownership group had taken control of the Texas Wild and moved the team to Citrus Heights, California, renaming it the California Dream.[25]
On January 13, 2016, WTT announced that the California Dream franchise had been terminated.[26] On February 17, 2016, the Boston Lobsters had ceased operations[27] and had been replaced with a new franchise called the New York Empire.[28]
In March 2017, Billie Jean King announced the sale of her majority share in WTT to venture capitalist Mark Ein, the founder and owner of the Washington Kastles, and Fred Luddy, the founder of ServiceNow and owner of the San Diego Aviators.[29][30]
In January 2019, Carlos Silva became the CEO and ushered in new deals with CBS and ESPN creating the largest-ever audience for WTT on July 21, 2019, on a CBS broadcast.
In March 2019, the league announced its expansion to eight teams for the 2019 season, with the creation of the Orlando Storm and the Vegas Rollers.[31]
On October 23, 2019, the league announced it would be awarding a record $5 million in prize money, including an additional $1 million for the postseason, during its 45th season and would be expanding again, adding two new franchises in 2020.[32]
In February 2020, the league announced its expansion to nine teams for the 2020 season with the Chicago Smash.[33]
In June 2020, WTT announced it would be the first major professional tennis league to resume operations since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The league committed to play the entirety of its 45th season at The Greenbrier in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia from July 12 through August 2.[34]
In March 2021, Carlos Silva stepped down as CEO.[35] The current COO is Allen Hardison.[36] The 2021 season was November 13–28 at the Indian Wells Tennis Garden.
WTT announced it would not hold a 2022 season as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, they promised to return in 2023 with new expansion teams, but as of 2025[update], this has not occurred.[37]
Teams at time of league folding
[edit]Former teams
[edit]Finals
[edit]Historical results
[edit]Current WTT teams are shown in bold, non-championship teams are shown in italics.
By team
[edit]| # | Team | Titles | Runner-ups | Years won |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Sacramento Capitals | 6 | 4 | 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2007 |
| 2 | Washington Kastles | 6 | 0 | 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 |
| 3 | Newport Beach/Orange County Breakers | 3 | 3 | 2004, 2017, 2021 |
| 4 | Los Angeles Strings | 3 | 2 | 1978, 1981, 1990 |
| 5 | Springfield Lasers | 2 | 6 | 2018, 2019 |
| 6 | Philadelphia Freedoms | 2 | 2 | 2001, 2006 |
| 7 | Atlanta Thunder | 2 | 1 | 1991, 1992 |
| New Jersey Stars | 2 | 1 | 1994, 1995 | |
| San Antonio Racquets | 2 | 1 | 1986, 1989 | |
| 10 | Charlotte Heat | 2 | 0 | 1987, 1988 |
| New York Sets/Apples | 2 | 0 | 1976, 1977 | |
| San Diego Buds | 2 | 0 | 1984, 1985 | |
| 13 | Delaware Smash | 1 | 3 | 2003 |
| New York OTBuzz/Buzz | 1 | 3 | 2008 | |
| 15 | Denver/Phoenix Racquets | 1 | 1 | 1974 |
| Kansas City Explorers | 1 | 1 | 2010 | |
| New York Empire | 1 | 1 | 2020 | |
| New York Sportimes | 1 | 1 | 2005 | |
| San Diego Aviators | 1 | 1 | 2016 | |
| St. Louis Aces | 1 | 1 | 1996 | |
| 21 | Chicago Fyre | 1 | 0 | 1983 |
| Dallas Stars | 1 | 0 | 1982 | |
| Pittsburgh Triangles | 1 | 0 | 1975 | |
| Wichita Advantage | 1 | 0 | 1993 | |
| 25 | Newport Beach Dukes | 0 | 2 | |
| San Francisco Golden Gaters | 0 | 2 | ||
| 27 | Austin Aces | 0 | 1 | |
| Boston Lobsters | 0 | 1 | ||
| Chicago Smash | 0 | 1 | ||
| Idaho Sneakers | 0 | 1 | ||
| Long Beach Breakers | 0 | 1 | ||
| Phoenix Sunsets | 0 | 1 | ||
| Raleigh Edge | 0 | 1 | ||
| St. Louis Slims | 0 | 1 |
By city
[edit]| # | City | Team(s) | Titles | Runners-up |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Sacramento, California | Capitals | 6 | 4 |
| 2 | Washington, D.C. | Kastles | 6 | 0 |
| 3 | New York City, New York | Sets/Apples, Sportimes, Empire | 4 | 2 |
| 4 | Newport Beach, California | Dukes, Breakers | 3 | 5 |
| 5 | Los Angeles, California | Strings | 3 | 2 |
| San Diego, California | Buds, Aviators | 3 | 1 | |
| 7 | Springfield, Missouri | Lasers | 2 | 6 |
| 8 | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania | Freedoms | 2 | 2 |
| 9 | Atlanta, Georgia | Thunder | 2 | 1 |
| Franklin Township, New Jersey | Stars | 2 | 1 | |
| San Antonio, Texas | Racquets | 2 | 1 | |
| 12 | Charlotte, North Carolina | Heat | 2 | 0 |
| 13 | Albany, New York | OTBzz/Electrics/Buzz | 1 | 3 |
| Wilmington, Delaware | Smash | 1 | 3 | |
| 15 | St. Louis, Missouri | Slims, Aces | 1 | 2 |
| 16 | Chicago, Illinois | Fyre, Smash | 1 | 1 |
| Kansas City, Missouri | Explorers | 1 | 1 | |
| 18 | Dallas, Texas | Stars | 1 | 0 |
| Denver, Colorado | Racquets | 1 | 0 | |
| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania | Triangles | 1 | 0 | |
| Wichita, Kansas | Advantage | 1 | 0 | |
| 22 | Phoenix, Arizona | Racquets, Sunsets | 0 | 2 |
| San Francisco, California | Golden Gaters | 0 | 2 | |
| 24 | Austin, Texas | Aces | 0 | 1 |
| Boise, Idaho | Sneakers | 0 | 1 | |
| Boston, Massachusetts | Lobsters | 0 | 1 | |
| Long Beach, California | Breakers | 0 | 1 | |
| Raleigh, North Carolina | Edge | 0 | 1 |
See also
[edit]
References
[edit]Inline citations
[edit]- ^ "World TeamTennis Firsts". World TeamTennis. Retrieved 2009-12-17.
- ^ "Sports People: Tennis – King Wants Navratilova to Finish Year". The New York Times. 1994-07-15.
- ^ Friedman, Charles (28 April 1976). "W.T.T. Unveils New Look with a Multicolor Court". The New York Times.
- ^ "World Team Tennis". 7 July 2014.
- ^ Goolsby, Denise. "Tennis greats celebrate 40 years of World TeamTennis". The Desert Sun.
- ^ "Multicolored courts return for World Team Tennis". 6 May 2006.
- ^ "San Diego Aviators | Professional Team Tennis | Carlsbad". 2 April 2019. Archived from the original on October 17, 2020.
- ^ McCoy, Adrian "Person of interest: Charles Reichblum (Dr. Knowledge)", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, January 15, 2012. Retrieved September 24, 2018.
- ^ AP "Plans for Pro Tennis League", The Daily Times, Salisbury, Maryland, October 5, 1972, page 20. Retrieved September 24, 2018.
- ^ Shrum, Rick "Love Triangles: Pittsburgh adored its World Team Tennis franchise", Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 10, 2000. Retrieved September 24, 2018.
- ^ John Barrett, ed. (1975). World of Tennis '75. London: Queen Anne Press. pp. 15–17. ISBN 9780362002171.
- ^ "Connors, Goolagong 'Can't Play'". The Palm Beach Post. May 22, 1974.
- ^ "World TeamTennis – teams by year" (PDF).
- ^ a b c "Struggling WTT Adds Three New Franchises". The San Bernardino County Sun. December 1, 1978. p. 65.
- ^ "WTT:Virginia Wade". World TeamTennis. Retrieved 2009-12-17. References both "Sets" and "Apples".
- ^ King, Billie Jean; Jett, Tyler (July 20, 2012). "Philadelphia Freedom: The Story behind the Song". Philly.com. The Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original on July 17, 2013. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
- ^ "Chrissie Evert in 1976 World Team Tennis All-Stars Match". chrisevertdotnet (YouTube). 11 April 2010. Archived from the original on 2021-12-12. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
- ^ "Steve Dimitry's WTT Web Page". Steve Dimitry. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
- ^ "New York Sportimes to Play Two WTT Matches in Albany This Summer As World Team Tennis' New York Teams Consolidate" http://www.wtt.com/page.aspx?article_id=2411
- ^ "World TeamTennis and Mylan Announce Three-Year Collaboration". www.wtt.com. October 16, 2012. Retrieved October 13, 2013.
- ^ "Mylan World TeamTennis team relocates to Austin; Andy Roddick to star on team" http://www.austinacestennis.com/teams/article.aspx?article_id=4160
- ^ "Mylan World TeamTennis team headed to San Diego" http://www.sandiegoaviators.com/teams/article.aspx?article_id=4247
- ^ "Mylan World TeamTennis team relocates franchise to Las Vegas" http://www.lasvegasneontennis.com/teams/article.aspx?article_id=4290
- ^ "League Statement on Las Vegas Franchise Termination" http://www.wtt.com/page.aspx?article_id=4330
- ^ "Mylan World TeamTennis Returns to Sacramento Area in 2015 with California Dream". World TeamTennis. February 23, 2015. Retrieved February 24, 2015.
- ^ "Sacramento pro tennis team folds". The Sacramento Bee. January 13, 2016.
- ^ "WTT Updates Status of Boston Lobsters". OurSportsCentral. February 17, 2016.
- ^ "Mylan WTT 2016 Season Includes NYC Return, Expanded Broadcast Coverage". OurSportsCentral. February 17, 2016.
- ^ "World TeamTennis co-founder Billie Jean King sells majority stake of historic league to Mark Ein and Fred Luddy". www.wtt.com. World TeamTennis. March 13, 2017.
- ^ Christopher Clarey (March 13, 2017). "With a Racket in One Hand, World Team Tennis Passes a Torch With the Other". The New York Times.
- ^ Bill Bradley (March 5, 2019). "Las Vegas gains franchise in World Team Tennis league". Retrieved 2019-03-06.
- ^ Baseline Staff (October 23, 2019). "WTT Adds $1 Million In Playoffs Prize Money For 2020". Retrieved 2019-10-23.
- ^ World TeamTennis (February 10, 2020). "New World TeamTennis Expansion Franchise Chicago Smash To Debut Summer 2020". Retrieved 2020-02-18.
- ^ World TeamTennis (June 1, 2020). "World TeamTennis Announces 2020 Season To Be Played At Historic Greenbrier Resort, July 12-Aug. 2". Retrieved 2020-06-01..
- ^ "World TeamTennis CEO Carlos Silva stepping down after two years". Sports Business Journal. 2021-03-04.
- ^ "Talking World Team Tennis with COO Allen Hardison". The Tennis Tribe. 2021-11-05.
- ^ a b "World Team Tennis cancels 2022 season; O.C. Breakers expected to return in '23". Daily Pilot. July 20, 2022.
- ^ "2019 WTT Season Begins TONIGHT!". 15 July 2019.
- ^ "WTT History". World TeamTennis. Retrieved 2018-08-03.
- ^ "Steve Dimitry's WTT Web Page". source data for 1981–2004. tennis-reference. Archived from the original on 2005-02-22. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
- ^ "World Team Tennis Past Champions". espn.com. ESPN. Retrieved Jun 15, 2020.
General references
[edit]- Greg Hoffman, The Art of World Team Tennis, San Francisco Book Company, 1977 ISBN 0-913374-65-2
- World TeamTennis, official website
- Brief History of World TeamTennis. From the WTT site.
- WTT Logos
- More WTT Logos
- "Tennis: Navratilova, Connors picked". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Associated Press. March 27, 1998. p. 3C.
External links
[edit]| Basics |
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World TeamTennis
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Format and Rules
Match Structure and Scoring
A World TeamTennis match consists of five sets: one each of women's doubles, men's doubles, women's singles, men's singles, and mixed doubles.[3] The home team coach determines the order in which these sets are played prior to the match.[12] Each set follows no-ad scoring rules, where games are played to four points, and the first team to win four points secures the game.[3] If a game reaches deuce (3-3), the receiving team selects the service box (deuce or ad court) for the deciding point, and the winner of that point claims the game without requiring a two-point margin.[3] Sets are contested to five games, with the first team to win five games taking the set.[3] In the event of a 4-4 tie, a nine-point tiebreaker determines the set winner; this tiebreaker is scored as "zero, 1, 2, 3," etc., and is won by the first team to reach five points, with players changing ends after every four points.[3] The tiebreaker counts as a single game toward the overall match score.[3] Match scoring accumulates across all sets, with each game won contributing one point to the team's total, regardless of the set.[12] The team leading in total games after the five sets wins the match. If the overall score is tied, overtime commences as an extension of the mixed doubles set, where teams continue playing no-ad games until one secures a one-game lead to claim victory.[13] In rare cases of persistent ties during overtime, a supertiebreaker may resolve the match, though this provision ensures decisive outcomes without indefinite play.[13]Court Specifications and Innovations
World TeamTennis courts adhere to standard tennis dimensions as defined by the International Tennis Federation, measuring 78 feet (23.77 meters) in length, with a width of 27 feet (8.23 meters) for singles play and 36 feet (10.97 meters) for doubles.[12] All lines, including baselines, sidelines, service lines, and the center service line, must be between 1 and 4 inches wide and uniformly colored to contrast clearly with the court surface, with measurements taken to the outside of the lines.[12] No singles sticks are permitted, ensuring a consistent doubles court width across sets.[12] While early iterations specified hard courts painted per league guidelines, later seasons incorporated Har-Tru clay as the official surface starting in 2020 to provide a consistent, high-quality playing experience.[12][14] A key innovation introduced at WTT's inception in 1974 was the multi-colored, no-line court design, aimed at enhancing spectator visibility by replacing traditional white lines with distinct colored zones demarcating playing areas.[2] This four-colored "calico" court eliminated thin boundary lines, allowing audiences to more easily track ball placement through color contrasts across zones such as service boxes and baselines.[15][1] The format debuted in the league's inaugural season, with the Denver Racquets' championship match on such a court, reflecting co-founder Billie Jean King's vision for a dynamic, team-oriented spectacle.[2] By the late 1970s and into revivals, WTT reverted to conventional lined courts for standardization, though the early colored design influenced broader experimentation in tennis court aesthetics for fan engagement.[16][17]Player Eligibility and Team Composition
Teams in World TeamTennis (WTT) are structured around a core roster designed to facilitate mixed-gender competition across singles, doubles, and mixed doubles sets, emphasizing professional player commitment to the full season schedule of 14 matches. Each team must include at least four players—two men and two women—alongside a designated coach responsible for strategy, substitutions, and compliance with uniform and conduct rules.[3][12] Some franchises opt for a five-player roster by designating a marquee or franchise player, typically a high-profile athlete who enhances team draw and receives match-based compensation rather than a fixed season salary.[3] Coaches, selected and paid by the franchise, cannot simultaneously serve as players, though they may substitute for an injured player of the same gender in emergencies, provided the original player does not return to that set.[12] Player selection occurs through a combination of player protections for returning roster members and drafts for marquee and core positions, where athletes submit letters of intent to enter the pool.[3] Roster players, the backbone of team stability, commit to and are contractually required to participate in every regular-season match unless replaced by a franchise or limited-season player, with compensation structured for the full 14-match slate.[12] Franchise players, limited to up to five per team and capped at two (one per gender) for finals eligibility, offer flexibility as they are not obligated to play all matches and are compensated per appearance.[12] Limited-season players, eligible only if ranked in the top 100 ATP or WTA singles or top 40 doubles (based on recent seasons), can join for a two-week block to fill gaps, enabling roster configurations such as three full-season players plus one limited or two full-season with two limited (one per gender).[12] Eligibility for individual players mandates signing a Player Independent Contractor Agreement, establishing them as professionals bound by WTT conduct, uniform, and participation standards, with no explicit age restrictions but an implicit focus on competitive ranking for limited and franchise roles.[12] To qualify for postseason play, including the WTT Finals, a player must appear in at least three regular-season matches for their team, while substitutes are restricted to two sets in finals and cannot exceed two matches per team overall.[12] Bonus compensation eligibility requires participation in 10 of the 14 regular-season matches, incentivizing consistent availability.[12] Additional provisions allow for substitute players to cover illness or injury across multiple teams (up to two matches each) and one alternate per gender per match to complete incomplete doubles pairings due to unforeseen absences, ejections, or disqualifications, ensuring match continuity without compromising team integrity.[12] Amateur players may participate in designated capacities, such as full junior teams assigned by WTT or USTA, but professional rosters prioritize ranked competitors to maintain competitive equity.[12]Founding and Early Operations (1974–1978)
Establishment and Vision
World TeamTennis (WTT) was established in 1974 by Billie Jean King, her then-husband Larry King, Fred Barman, Jordon Kaiser, Dennis Murphy, and Frank Fuhrer as the first professional co-ed team tennis league.[2] The inaugural season debuted on May 6, 1974, with the first match between the Philadelphia Freedoms and the Pittsburgh Triangles, ending in a 31-25 victory for the Triangles; the Denver Racquets won the first championship by defeating the Freedoms 55-48.[2] Billie Jean King served as player-coach for the Freedoms, becoming the league's first MVP and the first woman to coach a professional team including male players.[2] The vision for WTT centered on pioneering gender equity in professional sports by integrating men and women on the same teams with equal roles, contrasting with the era's predominantly segregated formats in tennis.[2] [18] King, a driving force, aimed to foster equality in pay, treatment, and respect, believing team tennis would make the sport more accessible and exciting, akin to major team sports like basketball or baseball, thereby expanding its popularity.[18] [19] Innovations such as a multi-colored no-line court and extended sets were introduced to enhance entertainment and media appeal, including the first HBO tennis broadcast on May 9, 1974.[2] This team-oriented approach sought to build community and loyalty among fans and players, with King emphasizing collaborative competition over individual rivalries to grow tennis's global reach.[20] The league's structure encouraged mixed-gender participation, reflecting King's broader philosophy of inclusive athletics where talent transcended sex-based divisions.[21]Initial Teams and Player Participation
The inaugural 1974 season of World TeamTennis featured 16 franchises spanning major cities in the United States and one in Canada, marking the league's expansion into a team-based professional format.[22] [23] These included the Baltimore Banners, Boston Lobsters, Chicago Aces, Cleveland Nets, Denver Racquets, Florida Flamingos, Hawaii Leis, Houston E-Z Riders, Los Angeles Strings, New York Sets, Philadelphia Freedoms, Pittsburgh Triangles, and San Francisco Golden Gaters, among others representing locations such as Detroit, Minnesota (Minneapolis-St. Paul), Buffalo-Toronto, Miami, and San Diego.[22] [23] [2] Franchise ownership varied, with figures like Dick and Ken Butera founding the Philadelphia Freedoms (later associated with Boston Lobsters operations) and Jerry Saperstein establishing the New York Sets.[22] Player rosters emphasized co-ed teams of typically four to six professionals, blending men's and women's singles, doubles, and mixed doubles to foster competitive balance and entertainment.[2] Billie Jean King played a central role in assembling the women's contingent, while Arthur Ashe, Leonard Bloom, and Wilt Chamberlain helped secure top male talent for the league's debut.[22] The first player allocation occurred via an inaugural draft on August 3, 1973, in New York City, distributing stars to build franchise appeal.[24] King herself served as player-coach for the Philadelphia Freedoms, earning the league's first Most Valuable Player award after leading them to the championship series, where they fell to the Denver Racquets 55-48.[2] Early seasons attracted elite competitors drawn by the innovative format and financial incentives, including Jimmy Connors (Baltimore Banners), Bjorn Borg (Cleveland Nets), Chris Evert (Phoenix Racquets and later Los Angeles Strings), Vitas Gerulaitis (Pittsburgh Triangles), and Rod Laver (San Diego franchise).[25] Participation extended through 1978, with teams like the New York Sets (1976 champions) and New York Apples (1977 champions) retaining core rosters amid roster adjustments, though player contracts often allowed movement between franchises to maintain parity.[26] [2] This structure highlighted emerging talents alongside veterans, contributing to the league's initial buzz despite logistical challenges in scheduling and venue adaptations.[22]Key Achievements and All-Star Events
The inaugural World TeamTennis season in 1974 culminated in the Denver Racquets defeating the Philadelphia Freedoms 55-48 in the Bancroft Cup finals on August 18, marking the league's first championship.[2] This victory highlighted the innovative team format, with the Racquets featuring players like Dennis Ralston and Betty Stöve contributing to their success.[2] In 1975, the Pittsburgh Triangles claimed the title by overcoming the San Francisco Golden Gaters 74-65 in the finals, showcasing strong performances from team members including Vitas Gerulaitis and Billie Jean King, who also earned league MVP honors that year for her dual role as player and coach.[2] The 1976 championship saw the New York Sets dominate the Golden Gaters 91-57, demonstrating the league's growing competitive depth with top talents like Ilie Năstase on the Sets roster.[2] The New York Apples secured the 1977 Bancroft Cup with a 55-39 win over the Phoenix Racquets, bolstered by stars such as John McEnroe and Billie Jean King.[2] The 1978 season ended with the Los Angeles Strings prevailing over the Boston Lobsters 108-93 in a best-of-five series, featuring Jerry Buss as owner and players like Stan Smith.[2] These finals series, structured as best-of-three or best-of-five aggregates across multiple disciplines, represented the league's primary marquee events during its founding era.[2] No dedicated all-star exhibitions were held in the 1974–1978 period, though the championships themselves drew widespread participation from elite professionals, underscoring WTT's role in pioneering co-ed team competition and equal billing for male and female athletes.[2]| Year | Champion | Opponent | Final Score |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1974 | Denver Racquets | Philadelphia Freedoms | 55–48[2] |
| 1975 | Pittsburgh Triangles | San Francisco Golden Gaters | 74–65[2] |
| 1976 | New York Sets | San Francisco Golden Gaters | 91–57[2] |
| 1977 | New York Apples | Phoenix Racquets | 55–39[2] |
| 1978 | Los Angeles Strings | Boston Lobsters | 108–93[2] |
Financial Challenges and Dissolution
Despite initial enthusiasm and innovative format, World Team Tennis encountered mounting financial pressures from its inception, exacerbated by high operational costs and insufficient revenue streams. Player salaries escalated rapidly, with top stars commanding figures such as $175,000 to $400,000 for Chris Evert and demands of $300,000 from Vitas Gerulaitis, straining franchise budgets in a league with only a 44-match season lacking the prestige or fan loyalty of established major sports.[27] For instance, the New York Apples generated approximately $500,000 from 22 home matches but incurred equivalent salary expenses alongside venue rentals of $30,000 per night at Madison Square Garden.[27] Attendance remained modest, averaging 4,000 spectators per Apples game with only about 2,700 paying $9 per ticket, reflecting limited public embrace of the team concept over individual match play.[27] Franchise instability compounded these issues, as owners faced personal losses without viable paths to profitability. The Los Angeles Strings' owner, Jerry Buss, reported cumulative losses of $2.7 million over five seasons from 1974 to 1978.[28] Earlier, in December 1976, the Boston Lobsters (formerly Triangles) suspended operations, paying a $150,000 league fee to pause their franchise amid recruitment and financial woes.[29] The absence of a lucrative network television contract further hampered growth, failing to draw elite male players like Jimmy Connors or Bjorn Borg, who prioritized individual tours.[27] League president Larry King attributed part of the strain to mismatched expectations, noting that owners and players approached WTT as a major league without commensurate collaboration or scale.[27] Franchise owner Sol Berg echoed this, criticizing salaries as unsustainable for a format without deep-rooted team traditions, resulting in his own financial setbacks.[27] By late 1978, these pressures culminated in rapid dissolution. The New York Apples folded in October after failing to secure marquee signings, triggering a domino effect where seven additional teams quickly followed suit, rendering the league unviable.[27] Broader economic conditions, including tepid fan interest in the team-oriented spectacle, sealed its fate, as the format struggled to excite audiences habituated to traditional tennis rivalries.[27] The entire operation ceased after the 1978 season, marking the end of the original WTT amid widespread acknowledgment of financial insolvency.[22]Revival and Expansion (1981–2021)
Reestablishment Under Billie Jean King
Following the financial collapse and dissolution of World TeamTennis after its 1978 championship series, Billie Jean King and her husband Larry King initiated a scaled-down revival of the league in 1981, rebranding it temporarily as TeamTennis to emphasize its team-oriented format while addressing prior economic shortcomings.[30][31] The effort focused on sustainability through reduced scope, including rosters limited to four players—two men and two women per team—to lower costs and simplify operations compared to the original league's larger ensembles.[22][32] The 1981 season featured just four franchises, all located in California: the Los Angeles Strings, San Francisco Golden Gaters, California Oranges, and Washington? No—actually, the teams were confined to regional play to minimize travel expenses, with the schedule compressed into a three-week period starting July 6, 1981.[26][33] The Los Angeles Strings, owned by Jerry Buss, clinched the inaugural revived title based solely on regular-season record, forgoing playoffs to streamline the format and culminating in a 9-3 performance.[2][34] This structure retained core innovations like no-ad scoring and mixed-gender team matches but prioritized fiscal viability over expansion.[35] King's leadership in the revival underscored her commitment to co-ed professional tennis, though she formally became the league's commissioner in 1984, marking her as the first woman in that role across major U.S. pro sports leagues.[2][30] The modest restart laid groundwork for gradual growth, avoiding the overextension that doomed the original iteration, and demonstrated causal links between restrained ambition and operational endurance in niche sports leagues.[31][22]Growth and Structural Changes (1981–1991)
Following its dissolution after the 1978 season due to financial difficulties, World TeamTennis was revived in 1981 under the direction of Billie Jean King and her husband Larry King, operating initially as TeamTennis with a more modest structure to ensure sustainability.[22] Rosters were reduced from larger squads in the original league to four players per team—two men and two women—to lower costs and simplify operations, while maintaining the co-ed team format and no-ad scoring system.[22] The league launched with four franchises, all based in California: the Los Angeles Strings, California Oranges, Oakland Breakers, and San Diego Buds (formerly Friars in the original iteration), with each owner contributing a $75,000 franchise fee primarily to fund player purses.[36][26] The Los Angeles Strings claimed the inaugural championship based on regular-season performance, defeating the California Oranges in the finale.[2] Expansion accelerated in 1982, growing to eight teams by incorporating franchises outside California, including the Dallas Stars, Houston Astro-Knots, and Chicago Aces, which broadened the league's geographic footprint and aimed to tap into larger markets amid tennis's post-1970s popularity surge.[32] Further additions in subsequent years, such as the Arizona Racquets and Indiana Loves in 1983, Sacramento Capitals in 1986, and Fresno Sun-Nets in 1988, pushed the total to around 10 franchises by the late 1980s, though some teams like the Houston Astro-Knots folded after brief runs due to inconsistent attendance and revenue.[32] This growth reflected efforts to stabilize finances through diversified ownership and regional rivalries, but the league remained smaller-scale compared to its 1970s predecessor, with seasons typically spanning 12-18 matches per team played on neutral or home sites.[22] Key structural developments included Billie Jean King's appointment in 1984 as the first female commissioner in professional sports, enhancing administrative oversight and promoting gender equity in leadership.[2] By 1990, the league secured multi-year marquee player contracts with Jimmy Connors and Martina Navratilova to boost star power and attendance, signaling a shift toward leveraging veteran talent for competitive balance and marketing appeal.[2] These changes, combined with persistent format innovations like mixed-doubles emphasis and fan-friendly scoring, helped TeamTennis navigate economic pressures, culminating in sustained operations through 1991 before a rebranding to World TeamTennis in 1992 to underscore international aspirations.[32]Mid-Period Developments (1992–1999)
In 1992, the league reverted to its original name, World TeamTennis, reflecting the sport's increasing international appeal following the global tennis boom of the late 1980s and early 1990s.[2] This rebranding coincided with the Atlanta Thunder capturing the championship by defeating the Newport Beach Dukes 30-17 in the final.[2] The season featured 11 teams, maintaining a competitive balance amid modest attendance and sponsorship growth.[37] Team rosters and franchises saw incremental adjustments throughout the decade, with expansions including the Minnesota Penguins in 1993, Idaho Sneakers from 1994 to 1997, Springfield Lasers in 1996, and Milwaukee Racqueteers in 1997.[32] Contractions offset some growth, such as the folding of the Tampa Bay Action after its single 1992 season and the Atlanta Thunder following 1996, while the New Jersey Stars ceased operations after 1995 despite back-to-back titles.[32] By 1994, the league expanded to 12 teams, incorporating no-line courts and mixed-gender formats that emphasized team scoring across men's and women's singles, doubles, and mixed doubles sets.[38] Championships highlighted regional rivalries and player star power, with the Wichita Advantage claiming the 1993 title over the Newport Beach Dukes 26-23, followed by the New Jersey Stars' consecutive wins in 1994 (28-25 over Idaho Sneakers) and 1995 (28-20 over Atlanta Thunder).[2] The St. Louis Aces prevailed in 1996 against the Delaware Smash 27-16, but the Sacramento Capitals emerged as dominant force from 1997 onward, securing the crown via regular-season record after finals rainout that year, then defeating the New York OTBzz 30-13 in 1998 and the Springfield Lasers 23-15 in 1999.[2] These victories underscored the Capitals' sustained excellence, bolstered by top professionals adapting to WTT's fast-paced, no-ad scoring and short sets.[32] No major structural overhauls or financial crises disrupted operations during this era, allowing focus on player development and fan engagement through evening matches and celebrity involvement, though attendance remained niche compared to ATP/WTA tours.[2] The period solidified WTT's role as a summer showcase for veterans and emerging talents, bridging individual Grand Slam circuits with team competition.[32]Modern Era and Peak Seasons (2000–2021)
The Sacramento Capitals dominated the early 2000s, securing championships in 2000 to complete a four-peat from 1997, marking their sixth overall title by 2007.[2] This period saw the league maintain a core of 6 to 8 teams annually, with franchises like the Capitals, Hartford FoxForce, and New York Sportimes competing in a summer schedule of short sets emphasizing mixed-gender team play.[26] Notable player participation grew, including Andre Agassi's involvement in 2002 as both player and ambassador, which helped sustain interest amid the professional tour's expansion.[2] Technological and format innovations enhanced competitiveness starting in 2005, the league's 30th season, when instant replay was introduced alongside debuts by Stefanie Graf and Martina Hingis.[2] By 2009, veterans like Martina Navratilova appeared in their 20th WTT season, while emerging stars such as Kim Clijsters joined, foreshadowing her U.S. Open success later that year.[2] These elements contributed to steady attendance in select markets, though the league remained niche compared to ATP and WTA events. The 2010s represented peak seasons through the Washington Kastles' five consecutive championships from 2011 to 2015, including a 34-match win streak from 2011 to 2013 that set a professional sports record.[2] An on-court service clock was added in 2015 to quicken play, aligning with broader tennis efforts to engage fans.[2] Expansion included the New York Empire's entry in 2016, reviving WTT presence in New York City, while a 2017 ownership shift saw Mark Ein and Fred Luddy acquire a majority stake, with Billie Jean King retaining involvement.[2] Top players like Venus Williams continued to participate, bolstering the league's appeal during this era of sustained operations and record achievements.[2]Impact of COVID-19 and 2021 Final Season
The COVID-19 pandemic significantly disrupted World TeamTennis operations starting in 2020, compelling the league to consolidate all matches at a single venue, The Greenbrier resort in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, from July 5 onward, rather than its traditional multi-city format.[39] This centralization aimed to mitigate virus transmission risks amid widespread event cancellations globally, with capacity limited to 500 spectators per match.[39] Strict protocols included mandatory COVID-19 testing for players, coaches, and staff upon arrival, daily temperature checks, and isolation for positive cases; initially, pre-season positives resulted in exclusion without pay, though policies later adjusted to provide prorated compensation during the event.[40] Incidents underscored enforcement challenges, such as American player Danielle Collins' dismissal on July 21, 2020, for protocol violations including unauthorized socializing, and Frances Tiafoe's withdrawal after testing positive.[11][41] These adaptations persisted into the 2021 season, held November 13–28 at Indian Wells Tennis Garden in California with five teams, continuing the single-site model to navigate ongoing pandemic restrictions and venue availability issues.[42] The format featured round-robin play culminating in semifinals and a final, emphasizing the league's resilience but highlighting sustained logistical strains from health mandates and reduced travel.[43] In the championship match on November 28, 2021, the Orange County Breakers defeated the Springfield Lasers 21–13, securing their third title through victories in women's singles (5–2), men's doubles (5–1), and mixed doubles (5–1), offsetting a 5–3 loss in men's singles.[44][43] Key contributors for the Breakers included Desirae Krawczyk in doubles and singles efforts, amid a season marked by competitive matches like San Diego Aviators' 22–14 semifinal win over Chicago Smash.[45] The event's conclusion represented the league's last under pandemic-influenced conditions, as financial damages to franchises from prior disruptions precluded a 2022 return to distributed play.[46]Post-2021 Developments
2022 Cancellation and Expansion Plans
World TeamTennis announced on July 20, 2022, that it would cancel its 2022 season, following two consecutive years of single-site events necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021.[47][48] The decision aimed to allow time for restructuring and revitalization of the league, which had operated in a condensed format at The Greenbrier resort in West Virginia during the prior seasons to mitigate health risks.[10][49] In conjunction with the cancellation, league co-founder Billie Jean King and WTT leadership outlined expansion plans for a potential 2023 return, emphasizing the addition of new franchises to broaden the league's footprint.[50] The initiative sought multiple expansion teams, with an entry fee of $1 million per franchise, and a shift back to traditional city-based home-and-away matches across the United States rather than centralized play.[47][51] Interested parties were invited to apply, with the goal of enhancing competitiveness and fan engagement through increased geographic diversity.[9] However, no new franchises were secured by the deadline, contributing to the league's subsequent inactivity.[46]Ongoing Inactivity and Uncertain Future
Following the 2021 season, which was held at a single site in Annapolis, Maryland, due to COVID-19 restrictions, World TeamTennis announced on July 20, 2022, that it would cancel its 2022 season to focus on franchise expansion and a return to multi-city play in 2023.[10] [46] The league solicited bids for new ownership groups in prospective markets, aiming to bolster its structure amid prior financial and logistical challenges.[52] Despite these intentions, no 2023 season materialized, with the official WTT website showing no updates on scheduling or operations beyond archival content as of early 2023.[53] As of October 2025, World TeamTennis has conducted no professional seasons since 2021, marking over four years of inactivity.[54] League co-founder Billie Jean King has not publicly detailed revival efforts in recent years, and searches for competitive events under the WTT banner yield no results for 2023, 2024, or 2025. The absence of activity coincides with broader shifts in professional tennis, including the rise of alternative team formats like the Laver Cup and increased popularity of paddle sports such as pickleball, which some observers cite as factors eroding WTT's viability.[53] However, no official statements from WTT attribute the hiatus explicitly to these trends. The league's future remains uncertain, with no confirmed plans for resumption or dissolution. Potential barriers include securing player commitments from top ATP and WTA tours, franchise stability, and venue partnerships, all of which proved challenging even in peak years. Without new announcements, WTT's innovative team-based model—emphasizing mixed-gender play, no-ad scoring, and entertainment elements—faces risks of fading into historical obscurity, though its foundational role in promoting gender equity in tennis endures.[1]Teams and Franchises
Teams at Time of 2021 Suspension
In the 2021 season, which marked the league's final year of play before suspending operations, five franchises participated in a condensed, centralized format at the Indian Wells Tennis Garden in California from November 13 to 28. These teams contested 31 matches over 16 days, with each playing 12 regular-season games and the top two advancing to the King Trophy final on November 28. The participating teams were:- Chicago Smash
- New York Empire
- Orange County Breakers
- San Diego Aviators
- Springfield Lasers[55]
Comprehensive List of Former Teams
World TeamTennis featured dozens of franchises across its original 1974–1978 iteration and its 1981–2021 revival, with most ceasing operations due to inconsistent attendance, financial losses, or league contractions.[26][32] The following table enumerates former teams, excluding the five franchises active in the league's final 2021 season (Chicago Smash, New York Empire, Orange County Breakers, San Diego Aviators, and Springfield Lasers), with locations and approximate years of participation derived from league records.[26][32][56]| Team Name | Location | Years Active |
|---|---|---|
| Anaheim Oranges | Anaheim, CA | 1978 |
| Arizona Racquets | Phoenix, AZ | 1983 |
| Atlanta Thunder | Atlanta, GA | 1991–1995 |
| Austin Aces | Austin, TX | 2014–2015 |
| Baltimore Banners | Baltimore, MD | 1974 |
| Boston Bays | Boston, MA | 1984–1987 |
| Boston Lobsters (1974–1978) | Boston, MA | 1974–1978 |
| Boston Lobsters (2005–2015) | Boston, MA | 2005–2015 |
| California Dream | Sacramento, CA | 2015 |
| California Oranges | Santa Ana, CA | 1981–1983 |
| Charlotte Express | Charlotte, NC | 1994–1995 |
| Charlotte Heat | Charlotte, NC | 1987–1990 |
| Chicago Aces | Chicago, IL | 1982 |
| Chicago Fire/Fyre | Chicago, IL | 1983–1986 |
| Cleveland Nets | Cleveland, OH | 1974–1978 |
| Corpus Christi Advantage | Corpus Christi, TX | 1986 |
| Dallas Stars | Dallas, TX | 1982–1983 |
| Delaware Smash | Wilmington, DE | 1996–2009 |
| Denver Racquets | Denver, CO | 1974 |
| Detroit Loves | Detroit, MI | 1974 |
| Florida Flamingos | Miami, FL | 1974 |
| Florida Twist | West Palm Beach, FL | 1993–1995 |
| Fresno Sun-Nets | Fresno, CA | 1988–1989 |
| Golden Gaters | San Francisco, CA | 1974–1978 |
| Hartford FoxForce | Hartford, CT | 2000–2007 |
| Hawaii Leis | Honolulu, HI | 1974–1976 |
| Houston Astro-Knots | Houston, TX | 1982–1983 |
| Houston E-Z Riders | Houston, TX | 1974 |
| Houston Wranglers | Houston, TX | 2005–2007 |
| Idaho Sneakers | Boise, ID | 1994–2000 |
| Indiana Loves | Indianapolis, IN | 1974–1978 |
| Kansas City Explorers | Kansas City, MO | 1993–2012 |
| Las Vegas Neon | Las Vegas, NV | 2014 (never played) |
| Long Beach Breakers | Long Beach, CA | 1984 |
| Los Angeles Strings | Los Angeles, CA | 1974–1978, 1981–1990 |
| Miami Beach Breakers | Miami Beach, FL | 1985–1990 |
| Milwaukee Racqueteers | Milwaukee, WI | 1997 |
| Minnesota Buckskins/Penguins | Minneapolis, MN | 1974, 1993 |
| New Jersey Stars | Princeton, NJ | 1987–1995 |
| New Orleans Sun Belt Nets | New Orleans, LA | 1978 |
| New York Apples | New York, NY | 1977–1978 |
| New York Buzz/OTBzz/Hamptons | New York, NY/Schenectady, NY | 1995–2009 |
| New York Sets | New York, NY | 1974–1976 |
| New York Sportimes | White Plains, NY | 2003–2013 |
| Newport Beach Dukes/Breakers | Newport Beach, CA | 1990–1993, 2003–2012 |
| Oakland Aces/Breakers | Oakland, CA | 1981–1986 |
| Philadelphia Freedoms (1974–1978) | Philadelphia, PA | 1974–1978 |
| Phoenix Racquets/Smash/Sunsets | Phoenix, AZ | 1975–1978, 1982, 1992–1994 |
| Pittsburgh Triangles | Pittsburgh, PA | 1974–1976 |
| Portland Panthers | Portland, OR | 1988–1989 |
| Raleigh Edge | Raleigh, NC | 1990–1993 |
| Sacramento Capitals | Sacramento, CA | 1986–2015 |
| San Antonio Racquets | San Antonio, TX | 1983–1994 |
| San Diego Buds/Friars | San Diego, CA | 1975–1978, 1981–1986 |
| Schenectady County Electrics | Schenectady, NY | 1999–2000 |
| Sea-Port/Seattle Cascades | Seattle, WA | 1977–1978 |
| South Florida Breakers | Boca Raton, FL | 1988 |
| St. Louis Aces/Eagles/Slims | St. Louis, MO | 1984–1985, 1994–2009 |
| Tampa Bay Action | Tampa, FL | 1992 |
| Texas Wild | Lewisville, TX | 2013–2014 |
| Vail Eagles | Vail, CO | 1992 |
| Wellington Aces | Wellington, FL | 1989–1991 |
| Wichita Advantage | Wichita, KS | 1991–1995 |
Franchise Relocations and Ownership Changes
The Kansas City Explorers franchise relocated to Irving, Texas, following the 2012 season, rebranding as the Texas Wild to capitalize on the Dallas-Fort Worth market's growth potential in professional sports.[57] In late 2013, tech entrepreneur Lorne Abony acquired the Orange County Breakers and shifted the team to Austin, Texas, renaming it the Austin Aces; however, the franchise returned to Newport Beach, California, in December 2015, reverting to the Orange County Breakers name amid challenges sustaining attendance in Austin.[22] In 2014, the New York Sportimes was sold by owner Claude Okin to a San Diego-based group led by Russell Geyser, prompting its relocation to San Diego, California, where it was reestablished as the San Diego Aviators, ending the Sportimes' operations in the New York area after 14 seasons.[58][59] Concurrently, the Sacramento Capitals franchise transferred to Las Vegas, Nevada, becoming the Vegas Rollers to tap into the entertainment-driven market.[60] The Texas Wild then moved to Citrus Heights, California, in February 2015 under new ownership, adopting the California Dream name to revive regional interest in the Sacramento vicinity.[22]| Original Franchise | Relocation Year | New City | New Name | Primary Reason/Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kansas City Explorers | 2013 | Irving, TX | Texas Wild | Market expansion in Dallas-Fort Worth |
| Orange County Breakers | 2013 | Austin, TX | Austin Aces | Ownership-driven shift; returned 2015 |
| New York Sportimes | 2014 | San Diego, CA | San Diego Aviators | Franchise sale and market relocation |
| Sacramento Capitals | 2014 | Las Vegas, NV | Vegas Rollers | Pursuit of entertainment market |
| Texas Wild | 2015 | Citrus Heights, CA | California Dream | New ownership and regional revival |
Championships and Statistical Records
List of Finals and Champions
The World TeamTennis championship finals, contested for the King Trophy, were held annually from 1974 to 1978 and from 1981 to 2021, excluding periods of league inactivity in 1979–1980 and the 2022 cancellation.[2] In most seasons, the final consisted of five sets (men's and women's singles, men's and women's doubles, and mixed doubles), with teams alternating home advantage; the aggregate score determined the winner.[2] Exceptions included determinations by regular-season record in 1981 and 1997 (due to rainout), and a one-week tournament format in 1984.[2]| Year | Champion | Runner-up | Final Score |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1974 | Denver Racquets | Philadelphia Freedoms | 55–48 |
| 1975 | Pittsburgh Triangles | San Francisco Golden Gaters | 74–65 |
| 1976 | New York Sets | San Francisco Golden Gaters | 91–57 |
| 1977 | New York Apples | Phoenix Racquets | 55–39 |
| 1978 | Los Angeles Strings | Boston Lobsters | 108–93 |
| 1981 | Los Angeles Strings | (Regular-season record) | N/A |
| 1982 | Dallas Stars | Phoenix Sunsets | 27–22 |
| 1983 | Chicago Fyre | Los Angeles Strings | 26–20 |
| 1984 | San Diego Buds | (One-week tournament) | N/A |
| 1985 | San Diego Buds | St. Louis Slims | 25–24 |
| 1986 | San Antonio Racquets | Sacramento Capitals | 25–23 |
| 1987 | Charlotte Heat | San Antonio Racquets | 25–20 |
| 1988 | Charlotte Heat | New Jersey Stars | 27–22 |
| 1989 | San Antonio Racquets | Sacramento Capitals | 27–25 |
| 1990 | Los Angeles Strings | Raleigh Edge | 27–16 |
| 1991 | Atlanta Thunder | Los Angeles Strings | 27–16 |
| 1992 | Atlanta Thunder | Newport Beach Dukes | 30–17 |
| 1993 | Wichita Advantage | Newport Beach Dukes | 26–23 |
| 1994 | New Jersey Stars | Idaho Sneakers | 28–25 |
| 1995 | New Jersey Stars | Atlanta Thunder | 28–20 |
| 1996 | St. Louis Aces | Delaware Smash | 27–16 |
| 1997 | Sacramento Capitals | (Finals rained out) | N/A |
| 1998 | Sacramento Capitals | New York OTBzz | 30–13 |
| 1999 | Sacramento Capitals | Springfield Lasers | 23–15 |
| 2000 | Sacramento Capitals | Delaware Smash | 21–20 |
| 2001 | Philadelphia Freedoms | Springfield Lasers | 20–18 |
| 2002 | Sacramento Capitals | New York Buzz | 21–13 |
| 2003 | Delaware Smash | Sacramento Capitals | 21–14 |
| 2004 | Newport Beach Breakers | Delaware Smash | 23–17 |
| 2005 | New York Sportimes | Newport Beach Breakers | 21–18 |
| 2006 | Philadelphia Freedoms | Newport Beach Breakers | 21–14 |
| 2007 | Sacramento Capitals | New York Buzz | 24–20 |
| 2008 | New York Buzz | Kansas City Explorers | 21–18 |
| 2009 | Washington Kastles | Springfield Lasers | 23–20 |
| 2010 | Kansas City Explorers | New York Sportimes | 21–18 |
| 2011 | Washington Kastles | St. Louis Aces | 23–19 |
| 2012 | Washington Kastles | Sacramento Capitals | 20–19 |
| 2013 | Washington Kastles | Springfield Lasers | 25–12 |
| 2014 | Washington Kastles | Springfield Lasers | 25–13 |
| 2015 | Washington Kastles | Austin Aces | 24–18 |
| 2016 | San Diego Aviators | Orange County Breakers | 25–14 |
| 2017 | Orange County Breakers | San Diego Aviators | 22–18 |
| 2018 | Springfield Lasers | Philadelphia Freedoms | 19–18 |
| 2019 | Springfield Lasers | New York Empire | 20–19 |
| 2020 | New York Empire | Chicago Smash | 21–20 |
| 2021 | Orange County Breakers | Springfield Lasers | 21–13 |
Titles by Team
The Sacramento Capitals won the most titles in WTT history with six championships (1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2007).[26] The Washington Kastles matched this total with six consecutive titles from 2009 and 2011–2015, including the league's first undefeated season in 2011.[26][2] The Los Angeles Strings secured three titles (1978, 1981, 1990).[26] Other teams with multiple championships include the Orange County Breakers franchise (three total: 2004 as Newport Beach Breakers, 2017, and 2021).[26][44]| Team | Titles | Years Won |
|---|---|---|
| Sacramento Capitals | 6 | 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2007[26] |
| Washington Kastles | 6 | 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015[26] |
| Los Angeles Strings | 3 | 1978, 1981, 1990[26] |
| Orange County Breakers (franchise) | 3 | 2004 (Newport Beach), 2017, 2021[26][44] |
| Philadelphia Freedoms | 2 | 2001, 2006[26] |
| San Diego Buds | 2 | 1984, 1985[26] |
| Charlotte Heat | 2 | 1987, 1988[26] |
| San Antonio Racquets | 2 | 1986, 1989[26] |
| New Jersey Stars | 2 | 1994, 1995[26] |
| Atlanta Thunder | 2 | 1991, 1992[26] |
| New York Sets | 1 | 1976[26] |
| New York Apples | 1 | 1977[26] |
| Denver Racquets | 1 | 1974[26] |
| Pittsburgh Triangles | 1 | 1975[26] |
| Dallas Stars | 1 | 1982[26] |
| Chicago Fyre | 1 | 1983[26] |
| Wichita Advantage | 1 | 1993[26] |
| St. Louis Aces | 1 | 1996[26] |
| Delaware Smash | 1 | 2003[26] |
| New York Sportimes | 1 | 2005[26] |
| Kansas City Explorers | 1 | 2010[26] |
| San Diego Aviators | 1 | 2016[26] |
| Springfield Lasers | 1 | 2018[26] |
| New York Empire | 1 | 2020[65] |
Titles by City and Region
Washington, D.C., and Sacramento, California, each hold the record for the most World TeamTennis championships with six titles apiece, achieved through dominant runs by the Washington Kastles and Sacramento Capitals, respectively.[66][32] New York City follows with five titles across multiple franchises, underscoring the league's early and late success in the Northeast.[66] California cities collectively dominate with 15 titles, reflecting the state's strong tennis infrastructure and player pools.[66]| City/Region | Titles | Notable Teams and Years |
|---|---|---|
| Washington, D.C. | 6 | Washington Kastles (2009, 2011–2015)[66] |
| Sacramento, CA | 6 | Sacramento Capitals (1997–2000, 2002, 2007)[66] |
| New York, NY | 5 | New York Sets (1976), New York Apples (1977), New York Sportimes (2005), New York Buzz (2008), New York Empire (2020)[66] |
| Los Angeles, CA | 3 | Los Angeles Strings (1978, 1981, 1990)[66] |
| San Diego, CA | 3 | San Diego Buds (1984–1985), San Diego Aviators (2016)[66] |
| Charlotte, NC | 2 | Charlotte Heat (1987–1988)[66] |
| Atlanta, GA | 2 | Atlanta Thunder (1991–1992)[66] |
| New Jersey | 2 | New Jersey Stars (1994–1995)[66] |
| Philadelphia, PA | 2 | Philadelphia Freedoms (2001, 2006)[66] |
| San Antonio, TX | 2 | San Antonio Racquets (1986, 1989)[66] |
| Orange County, CA | 2 | Orange County Breakers (2017, 2021)[66] |
| Springfield, MO | 2 | Springfield Lasers (2018–2019)[66] |