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Abbasid Caliphate
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Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name. After overthrowing the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH), they ruled as caliphs based in Iraq, with Baghdad being their capital for most of their history.
The Abbasid Revolution had its origins and first successes in the easterly region of Khurasan, far from the Levantine center of Umayyad influence. The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa, Iraq, but in 762 the caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad as the new capital. Baghdad became the center of science, culture, arts, and invention in what became known as the Golden Age of Islam. By housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom, as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, the city garnered an international reputation as a centre of learning. The Abbasid period was marked by the use of bureaucrats in governance, including the vizier, as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (Muslim community) and among the political elites.
The apogee of the caliphate's power and prestige is traditionally associated with Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809). After his death, civil war brought new divisions and was followed by significant changes to the character of the state, including the creation of a new professional army recruited mainly from Turkic slaves and the construction of a new capital, Samarra, in 836. The 9th century also saw a growing trend of provincial autonomy spawning local dynasties who controlled different regions of the empire, such as the Aghlabids, Tahirids, Samanids, Saffarids, and Tulunids. Following a period of turmoil in the 860s, the caliphate regained some stability and its seat returned to Baghdad in 892.
During the 10th century, the authority of the caliphs was progressively reduced to a ceremonial function in the Islamic world. Political and military power was transferred instead to the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks, who took control of Baghdad in 945 and 1055, respectively. The Abbasids eventually regained control of Mesopotamia during the rule of Caliph al-Muqtafi (r. 1136–1160) and extended it into Iran during the reign of Caliph al-Nasir (r. 1180–1225). This revival ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan and the execution of Caliph al-Musta'sim. A surviving line of Abbasids was re-installed in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, with the brief exception of Caliph al-Musta'in, the dynasty continued to claim symbolic authority until a few years after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, with the last Abbasid caliph being al-Mutawakkil III.
The Abbasid caliphs were descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. This family relation to Muhammad made them appealing to those who were discontented with the rule of the Umayyad caliphs (661–750), who were not descended from the same family. Over the course of their rule, the Umayyads even suppressed several rebellions that attempted to bring other members of Muhammad's family to power. One of the claims that the Abbasids made in the early years of their political movement was that Abu Hashim, the son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya and grandson of Ali, had formally transferred the Imamate (imāmah) to Muhammad ibn Ali (the great-grandson of Abbas) and thus to the Abbasid family. Muhammad ibn Ali began to campaign in Persia for the return of power to the family of Muhammad, the Hashemites, during the reign of Umar II.[citation needed] Later, after they had attained power and needed to broaden their support among Muslims, the Abbasids supplemented this claim with other claims to justify their legitimacy.
The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Merv with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali". The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire.[citation needed]
During the reign of Marwan II, this opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim al-Imam, the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of Khurasan (eastern Iran), even though the governor opposed them, and the Shi'i Arabs, he achieved considerable success, but was captured in the year 747 and died, possibly assassinated, in prison.[citation needed]
On 9 June 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), Abu Muslim, rising from Khurasan, successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the Black Standard. Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv. General Qahtaba followed the fleeing governor Nasr ibn Sayyar west defeating the Umayyads at the Battle of Gorgan, the Battle of Nahavand and finally in the Battle of Karbala, all in the year 748.
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Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name. After overthrowing the Umayyad Caliphate in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH), they ruled as caliphs based in Iraq, with Baghdad being their capital for most of their history.
The Abbasid Revolution had its origins and first successes in the easterly region of Khurasan, far from the Levantine center of Umayyad influence. The Abbasid Caliphate first centered its government in Kufa, Iraq, but in 762 the caliph al-Mansur founded the city of Baghdad as the new capital. Baghdad became the center of science, culture, arts, and invention in what became known as the Golden Age of Islam. By housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom, as well as a multiethnic and multi-religious environment, the city garnered an international reputation as a centre of learning. The Abbasid period was marked by the use of bureaucrats in governance, including the vizier, as well as an increasing inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (Muslim community) and among the political elites.
The apogee of the caliphate's power and prestige is traditionally associated with Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809). After his death, civil war brought new divisions and was followed by significant changes to the character of the state, including the creation of a new professional army recruited mainly from Turkic slaves and the construction of a new capital, Samarra, in 836. The 9th century also saw a growing trend of provincial autonomy spawning local dynasties who controlled different regions of the empire, such as the Aghlabids, Tahirids, Samanids, Saffarids, and Tulunids. Following a period of turmoil in the 860s, the caliphate regained some stability and its seat returned to Baghdad in 892.
During the 10th century, the authority of the caliphs was progressively reduced to a ceremonial function in the Islamic world. Political and military power was transferred instead to the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks, who took control of Baghdad in 945 and 1055, respectively. The Abbasids eventually regained control of Mesopotamia during the rule of Caliph al-Muqtafi (r. 1136–1160) and extended it into Iran during the reign of Caliph al-Nasir (r. 1180–1225). This revival ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan and the execution of Caliph al-Musta'sim. A surviving line of Abbasids was re-installed in the Mamluk capital of Cairo in 1261. Though lacking in political power, with the brief exception of Caliph al-Musta'in, the dynasty continued to claim symbolic authority until a few years after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517, with the last Abbasid caliph being al-Mutawakkil III.
The Abbasid caliphs were descended from Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, one of the youngest uncles of Muhammad and of the same Banu Hashim clan. This family relation to Muhammad made them appealing to those who were discontented with the rule of the Umayyad caliphs (661–750), who were not descended from the same family. Over the course of their rule, the Umayyads even suppressed several rebellions that attempted to bring other members of Muhammad's family to power. One of the claims that the Abbasids made in the early years of their political movement was that Abu Hashim, the son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya and grandson of Ali, had formally transferred the Imamate (imāmah) to Muhammad ibn Ali (the great-grandson of Abbas) and thus to the Abbasid family. Muhammad ibn Ali began to campaign in Persia for the return of power to the family of Muhammad, the Hashemites, during the reign of Umar II.[citation needed] Later, after they had attained power and needed to broaden their support among Muslims, the Abbasids supplemented this claim with other claims to justify their legitimacy.
The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking their moral character and administration in general. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Merv with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali". The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire.[citation needed]
During the reign of Marwan II, this opposition culminated in the rebellion of Ibrahim al-Imam, the fourth in descent from Abbas. Supported by the province of Khurasan (eastern Iran), even though the governor opposed them, and the Shi'i Arabs, he achieved considerable success, but was captured in the year 747 and died, possibly assassinated, in prison.[citation needed]
On 9 June 747 (15 Ramadan AH 129), Abu Muslim, rising from Khurasan, successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule, which was carried out under the sign of the Black Standard. Close to 10,000 soldiers were under Abu Muslim's command when the hostilities officially began in Merv. General Qahtaba followed the fleeing governor Nasr ibn Sayyar west defeating the Umayyads at the Battle of Gorgan, the Battle of Nahavand and finally in the Battle of Karbala, all in the year 748.
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