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Arap (Somali: Arab) is a major northern Somali clan of the wider Isaaq clan family.[1] The Arap predominantly live on the middle and southwest side of Hargeisa. They also inhabit the Baligubadle district, with its capital Baligubadle being are an exclusively Arap territory.[2] They also predominantly live in the Haud. The territory of the clan extends to Ethiopia, in the area of Faafan, Gursum and Dhagahle.[3] The Abdalle Arab, a sub-clan of the Arap clan is based in the Togdheer, Sahil. The Celi Arab, a sub-clan of the Arap clan is based in Hargeisa. Another sub clan, the Muuse celi arab inhabit the Bakool region in the South West State of Somalia, specifically the districts of Rabdhure and Elbarde.

Key Information

History

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Lineage

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Sheikh Ishaaq ibn Ahmed is a legendary mythical figure[4][5][6][7][8] who purportedly arrived in the Horn of Africa to spread Islam around the 12th to 13th century. Hence, Sheikh Ishaaq married two local women in Somaliland that left him eight sons, one of them being Muhammad (Arap). The purported descendants of those eight sons constitute the Isaaq clan-family.[9]

The Arap clan have historically been an important part of the Isaaq clan-family and belong to the wider Habr Magaadle confederation. They are closely associated with the Garhajis clan, with whom they are considered “twin clans” in genealogical traditions.[10]

Traditionally, the Arap inhabited territories south and west of Hargeisa, including what is today the Baligubadle District. Oral traditions also describe their involvement in the caravan trade linking the interior of Somaliland to the coastal ports of Zeila and Berbera.[11]

During the sixteenth century, the Arap, alongside other Habr Magaadle lineages such as the Habr Awal and Habr Je'lo, contributed fighters to the Adal Sultanate’s military campaigns against the Ethiopian Empire and were the first ones to join the call for Ahmed Gurey’s jihad, as recorded in the Arabic chronicle Futuh al-Habasha.[12]

In the modern era, the Arap played a key role in the formation and operations of the Somali National Movement (SNM) during the 1980s. The Baligubadle area became the SNM’s headquarters, and several prominent leaders of the movement came from the Arap clan, most notably Sultan Mohamed Sultan Farah and Hassan Isse Jama.[13][14]

Following Somaliland’s declaration of independence in 1991, Sultan Mohamed Sultan Farah became widely respected for spearheading the clan-based demobilisation process. His son, Sultan Umar Sultan Mohamed, succeeded him in 2003 and remained in leadership until his death in 2021.[15]

Role in the SNM

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Baligubadle, which straddles the border between Ethiopia and Somaliland, was the headquarters of the Somali National Movement (SNM) during the Somaliland War of Independence from the regime of general Siad Barre.[16]

The Araps were heavily involved in the SNM and led the first military offensive of the SNM near Baligubadle where a small force attacked a fuel tanker supplying the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party regime's base in the town. This operation was organised by local commanders without prior planning utilizing a local force of clansmen based at the organisation's Lanqeyrta base in Hawd.[17]

Hassan Isse Jama was also one of original founders of the SNM in London.[18] He was also the first vice president of Somaliland and served as the deputy chairman of the SNM.[18] Furthermore in 1983, Sultan Mohamed Sultan Farah of the Arap clan was the first sultan to leave Somalia to Ethiopia and openly cooperate with the SNM.[19]

Familial ties

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Historically, the Arap took part in the conquest of Abyssinia, and were part of the Adal Sultanate and are mentioned in the book Futuh Al-Habash (Conquest of Abyssinia) as the Habar Magaadle, along with the Ayub, Habar Yoonis, Habar Awal and Eidagalle clans. The Habar Magaadle are known for producing a historical figure known as Ahmad Gurey bin Husain who was the right-hand man of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi his clan arap. The Arap were the first clan agreed to lead the process of demobilization. This put pressure on other clans to follow suit, and, in early 1994, a well-staged ceremony was held in the Hargeysa football stadium to hand over weapons, playing an instrumental role in the Somaliland peace process.[20][21]

Notable Arap people

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References

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Arap

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from Grokipedia
The Arap (Somali: Arab) is a subclan of the Isaaq clan family within the Somali people, traditionally residing in northwestern Somaliland and adjacent areas of eastern Ethiopia. Members of the clan are concentrated around Hargeisa, Baligubadle district, and regions such as Togdheer, Sool, Sahil, and parts of Ethiopia's Somali Region. Subclans include the Abdalle Arap, among others, reflecting the patrilineal structure common to Somali clans. The Arap have participated in Somaliland's state-building efforts, favoring the centralization of military control to counterbalance larger subclans within the Isaaq confederation. Despite claims embedded in clan nomenclature suggesting Arab origins, genetic and anthropological evidence aligns the Arap, like other Isaaq groups, with indigenous Cushitic populations of the Horn of Africa rather than Arabian Peninsula descent.

Identity and Origins

Etymology and Clan Name

The Arap clan, a principal sub-clan within the Isaaq tribal confederation of northern Somalia and Somaliland, derives its name from its eponymous ancestor, Muḥammad ibn ash-Shaykh Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad bin al-Ḥusayn al-Hāshimīy, one of the sons of Sheikh Ishaaq bin Ahmed, the legendary founder of the Isaaq lineage in the 12th or 13th century. Somali oral genealogical traditions, preserved through clan elders and historical recitations, identify this figure—also known as Mohamed Carab—as the progenitor, with "Carab" serving as a nickname equivalent to "Arab" in the Somali language, reflecting purported Arab-Islamic scholarly origins tied to Sheikh Ishaaq's migration from the Arabian Peninsula. This etymological link underscores the clan's self-claimed descent from Hashemite Arab roots, a common motif in Isaaq subclan narratives that emphasize Islamic scholarly migration rather than indigenous Cushitic evolution alone, though such claims lack independent archaeological or genetic corroboration beyond oral accounts. The term "Arap" itself appears as a Somali phonetic adaptation of "Arab" (transliterated in Arabic sources as أرب), distinguishing the clan from broader ethnic Arab identities while invoking symbolic affinity to Arab cultural and religious heritage; this naming convention aligns with patterns in other Somali clans that incorporate Arabic-derived appellations to denote revered ancestors or spiritual lineages. Clan genealogies, such as those recited in traditional Somali poetry and dispute resolution forums (xeer), consistently position Arap as the second or third son of Sheikh Ishaaq, following figures like Ayub or preceding Garhajis, with the name encapsulating both patrilineal descent and a historical narrative of Islamic proselytization in the Horn of Africa. While forum-based discussions among Somali diaspora preserve these details, they draw from elder testimonies rather than written primary sources, introducing potential variability due to regional oral variations or inter-clan rivalries that occasionally contest precise rankings among Sheikh Ishaaq's progeny. In contemporary usage, the clan is interchangeably referred to as Arap or Arab, with the former predominating in Somali vernacular contexts to avoid conflation with foreign Arab ethnic groups, reflecting a pragmatic adaptation that maintains genealogical distinctiveness within the patrilineal Somali clan system (jilib). This nomenclature has persisted through colonial records and post-independence ethnographies, where British administrators in British Somaliland (now Somaliland) documented Arap leaders in territorial disputes, affirming the name's antiquity without altering its traditional etymological basis.

Traditional Lineage and Genealogy

The Arap clan maintains a patrilineal genealogy rooted in the broader Isaaq clan-family's traditional descent from Sheikh Ishaaq bin Ahmed, an Arab Islamic scholar purportedly arriving in the Horn of Africa during the 12th or 13th century from the Arabian Peninsula. This lineage positions Sheikh Ishaaq as a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima, embedding the Arap within a claimed Qurayshite Arab pedigree that underscores Somali clans' emphasis on Islamic scholarly origins as social and ritual charters rather than strictly historical records. In Arap oral traditions, the clan's eponymous progenitor is Arap (also rendered as Ahmed or Muhammad) bin Ishaaq, one of Sheikh Ishaaq's eight sons, who form the apical ancestors of Isaaq sub-clans. This places Arap within the Habar Magaadle confederation, alongside sibling lines from Ayub bin Ishaaq, Ismail bin Ishaaq (progenitor of Garhajis), and Abdurahman bin Ishaaq (progenitor of Habar Awal), reflecting a segmentary lineage system where descent is reckoned through male lines for alliance, inheritance, and conflict resolution. The name "Arap," deriving from the Somali term for "Arab," reinforces this purported exogenous origin, though anthropological analyses, such as those examining Somali genealogical structures, interpret such claims as ideological constructs legitimizing pastoralist authority via Islamic prestige rather than verifiable migration events. Subsequent generations in Arap genealogy segment into primary branches like the Reer Yunis and Abdalle, each maintaining oral records of further patrilines extending 10–20 generations, used to delineate rights to wells, grazing lands, and diya (blood-money) payments in pastoral Somali society. These traditions, preserved through poetry and elder recitations, prioritize functional utility in clan balancing over chronological precision, with variations across lineages attesting to adaptive oral transmission rather than fixed documentation. Empirical genetic studies of Somali populations, including Isaaq groups, show predominant East African haplogroups with limited Arabian admixture, suggesting the Arab descent narratives serve more as cultural myth than literal ancestry, consistent with patterns in other Cushitic clans.

Historical Development

Pre-Colonial and Early Settlement

The Arap clan, as a prominent subclan within the Isaaq clan family, traces its origins through traditional Somali patrilineal genealogies to Sheikh Ishaaq bin Ahmed, a figure reputed in oral histories to have migrated from the Arabian Peninsula to the Horn of Africa between the 11th and 13th centuries CE, establishing progeny that diversified into major Isaaq branches. The name "Arap," deriving from the Somali term for "Arab," underscores a specific eponymous ancestor claimed to be of Arabian stock, a motif common in Somali clan narratives to affirm Islamic piety and prestige. Anthropological analyses, however, interpret these genealogical assertions as socio-political constructs rather than verifiable historical migrations, functioning as "charters" to legitimize clan hierarchies and religious authority amid indigenous Cushitic roots, with empirical evidence from linguistics and archaeology pointing to Somali ethnogenesis in the Ethiopian highlands around 1000-1500 years ago, followed by southward and coastal expansions. By the 16th century, movements of proto-Isaaq groups had solidified clan distributions in northern Somalia's pastoral zones, where Arap forebears likely integrated into the arid grasslands suitable for camel nomadism. In the pre-colonial era before British establishment of the Somaliland Protectorate in 1884, the Arap sustained a decentralized, segmentary lineage system centered on livestock herding, with primary settlements in the middle and southwestern vicinities of present-day Hargeisa and the Baligubadle district, areas rich in seasonal wells and grazing lands. Social organization revolved around diya-paying groups and sultanates, such as the Isaaq Sultanate under Eidagale leadership from the mid-18th century, which coordinated defense against incursions from Oromo pastoralists and Ethiopian expansions, fostering Arap involvement in inter-clan alliances and raids for water and pasture resources. This nomadic adaptation enabled population growth, with estimates of Isaaq clans, including Arap, numbering in the tens of thousands by the early 19th century, reliant on trade in hides, ghee, and livestock with Aden ports.

Colonial Era Interactions

The Arap clan, as a subclan of the Isaaq, resided within the British Somaliland Protectorate established in the late 19th century following protection treaties signed with major northern Somali clans, including several Isaaq branches such as the Habr Gerhajis, Habr Toljaala, and Habr Awal. These agreements, concluded primarily between 1884 and 1887, secured British influence over coastal ports like Berbera and extended nominally to interior pastoral territories, with the protectorate emphasizing minimal governance to counter rival European powers and Ethiopian expansion. Colonial ethnographic records identified the Arap—rendered as the "Arab" tribe—as a small nomadic group distributed across the Burao and Hargeisa districts, engaging in pastoralism with herds of camels, sheep, and goats. Unlike clans with centralized sultans, the Arap operated without a hereditary chief, instead relying on a council of headmen (akils) for internal dispute resolution and external dealings, a structure the British co-opted for indirect rule by granting stipends to selected leaders to enforce basic order and facilitate light taxation in livestock equivalents. Interactions remained limited due to the protectorate's sparse administration, focused on port security and caravan route protection rather than deep interior control; the Arap, like other Isaaq nomads, supplied animals to Berbera markets but avoided major conflicts such as the anti-colonial Dervish uprising (1899–1920), which drew primarily from Darod clans in eastern areas. During the brief Italian occupation (1940–1941) and subsequent British restoration, Arap territories in the northwest saw no documented clan-specific resistance, aligning with broader Isaaq cooperation under protectorate authority until independence in 1960.

Clan Structure and Relations

Position within the Isaaq Confederation

The Arap clan constitutes one of the primary lineages within the Isaaq Confederation, descending directly from Muhammad bin Sheikh Isaaq bin Ahmed, the legendary progenitor of the Isaaq people. This genealogical placement aligns the Arap with the Habar Magaadle division, a core subgroup encompassing four brotherly clans—Arap, Habar Awal (Abdirahman), Ayub, and Garhajis (Ismail)—which together form the bulk of the Isaaq's eastern and central branches, distinct from the western-oriented Habar Jeclo. Traditional Somali oral histories and clan genealogies, as documented in regional chronicles, emphasize this fraternal structure as foundational to the confederation's unity, enabling coordinated responses to external threats and internal governance through shared descent rather than strict hierarchy. Within the confederation, the Arap maintain egalitarian relations with peer sub-clans, participating in collective decision-making via customary assemblies (shir) that prioritize consensus among Isaaq elders, though practical influence often correlates with demographic size and territorial control. The Arap's position facilitates alliances, particularly with Habar Awal and Garhajis, in matters of resource allocation and defense, as evidenced by their joint involvement in 19th-century resistance against Ethiopian incursions into the Hawd region. Unlike more nomadic sub-clans, the Arap's semi-sedentary pastoralism in areas like Baligubadle reinforces their role in stabilizing confederation heartlands around Hargeisa, contributing to the Isaaq's overall cohesion without dominance over other branches. Clan genealogies, while rooted in patrilineal traditions verified through multiple Somali historical accounts, exhibit minor variations in sequencing—such as debates over exact sibling order among Sheikh Isaaq's sons—but consistently affirm the Arap's integral status, underscoring the confederation's emphasis on shared ancestry over rigid subordination. This structure has historically buffered the Isaaq against fragmentation, with the Arap's contributions to inter-sub-clan marriages and economic exchanges bolstering resilience during colonial partitions and post-independence conflicts.

Internal Subdivisions and Familial Ties

The Arap clan adheres to the patrilineal descent system common among Somali clans, tracing its primary lineages to Arap bin Isḥāq ibn Aḥmad, positioned as one of the foundational sons in Isaaq genealogy. This structure emphasizes segmentary lineages, where sub-clans (reer) form through male progeny, enabling flexible alliances based on proximity to common ancestors during conflicts or resource disputes. Documented internal subdivisions include the Abdalle Arap, concentrated in the Togdheer, Sool, Hargeisa, and Sahil regions of Somaliland, and the Muuse Celi Arap (also known as Muuse Celi Arab), with reported settlements extending to Bakool in southwestern Somalia. These branches maintain distinct territorial identities while sharing overarching Arap affiliation, often cooperating in pastoral mobility and local governance. Familial ties extend through intermarriages and diya-paying groups (blood-money collectives) with adjacent Isaaq sub-clans, such as the Habr Awal to the west and Garhajis lineages, fostering intra-Isaaq solidarity amid historical nomadic pastoralism. Such ties, rooted in uterine divisions of the broader Isaaq family, prioritize agnatic bonds for mutual defense and resource access, as evidenced in pre-colonial migration patterns.

Geographic Distribution

Territories in Somaliland

The Arap clan, a sub-clan within the Habar Magaadle branch of the Isaaq, maintains significant presence in Somaliland's Woqooyi Galbeed region, particularly along the middle and southwestern peripheries of Hargeisa, the national capital. These urban and semi-urban settlements reflect historical pastoral mobility patterns adapted to proximity with administrative and economic centers. Further inland, the Arap dominate the Baligubadle district in the Maroodi Jeex region, encompassing former Hawd territories bordering Ethiopia, where Baligubadle town functions as the administrative hub and remains a core Arap stronghold. This district's arid pastoral landscapes support traditional livestock herding, with Arap lineages controlling key grazing areas and water points amid seasonal migrations. The clan's territorial concentration here underscores its role in local governance and resource disputes within Somaliland's decentralized clan-based administration. While Arap settlements extend sporadically into adjacent districts for transhumance, their primary demographic footprint remains confined to these Hargeisa-adjacent and Baligubadle zones, comprising a modest proportion of Somaliland's Isaaq-majority population estimated at around 80% of the republic's roughly 5.7 million residents as of recent projections. Ethnographic studies highlight the Arap's adaptation to both urban integration in Hargeisa and rural pastoralism in Baligubadle, though exact population figures for the sub-clan are unavailable due to the absence of clan-specific censuses in Somaliland.

Presence in Ethiopia and Diaspora

The Arap clan, as a sub-clan of the Isaaq, inhabits border areas of Ethiopia's Somali Regional State, particularly the northern zones adjacent to Somaliland, including the Haud region and zones like Fafan. This presence reflects historical pastoral nomadic patterns, with Arap members sharing grazing lands and migration routes with other Isaaq groups such as the Habr Awal and Garhajis. Tensions over these territories have led to recurrent conflicts, notably with the Ogaden (Darod) clan, as seen in disputes in areas like Da'awaley, where land claims and resource competition persist amid weak state oversight. In the diaspora, Arap individuals form part of broader Isaaq communities displaced by events like the Somali Civil War and the 1988-1991 Isaaq genocide, settling primarily in Western countries with significant Somali populations. Early waves in the late 1980s targeted the United Kingdom, particularly London, where Isaaq refugees, including from Somaliland, established enclaves maintaining clan ties through remittances and cultural networks. Similar patterns emerged in Canada, with Toronto hosting organized Somali-Isaaq groups focused on community support and economic reintegration. In the United States, Arap diaspora members contribute to urban Somali hubs like Minneapolis, though specific sub-clan demographics remain underdocumented amid general Isaaq integration into professional and entrepreneurial roles. These communities sustain links to Ethiopian and Somaliland territories via cross-border kinship and investment, bolstering resilience against local insecurities.

Political and Military Role

Involvement in the Somali National Movement

The Somali National Movement (SNM), founded in 1981 by exiled Isaaq professionals and military officers in London, drew primary support from the Isaaq clan to challenge Siad Barre's regime amid escalating marginalization and repression in northern Somalia. The Arap sub-clan, integrated within the Isaaq structure, contributed to the SNM's organizational framework through designated clan representation in leadership, ensuring equitable participation among sub-clans like the Habar Awal, Sa'ad Musa, and Arap to foster unity and resource allocation. Baligubadle district, a core Arap settlement in the Woqooyi Galbeed region, emerged as a critical rear base for SNM operations by the mid-1980s, leveraging the sub-clan's pastoral networks for logistics, recruitment, and sheltering fighters amid cross-border activities from Ethiopia. This geographic advantage facilitated sustained guerrilla tactics against government garrisons, with local Arap militias providing intelligence and manpower during the escalation of hostilities in 1988, when Barre's forces launched retaliatory bombings in Isaaq areas. By 1990, as SNM forces advanced toward major cities like Hargeisa and Burao, Baligubadle hosted the movement's Sixth Congress, where Arap elders and delegates influenced transitional governance protocols, including a two-year interim administration clause to accommodate non-Isaaq clans post-victory. These contributions aligned with broader Isaaq efforts but highlighted Arap-specific territorial control in enabling the SNM's shift from insurgency to de facto authority in the northwest.

Key Military Contributions and Events

The Arap sub-clan of the Isaaq played a pivotal role in the Somali National Movement (SNM) by providing strategic bases and personnel during the insurgency against the Siad Barre regime in the 1980s. Baligubadle, a district predominantly settled by Arap communities, served as a key headquarters for SNM operations, facilitating coordination of guerrilla activities in northern Somalia. This location's proximity to the Ethiopian border enabled logistics support from exile bases and cross-border movements essential for sustaining the rebellion. Sultan Umar of the Arap sub-clan emerged as a prominent military leader within the SNM, commanding forces and earning recognition as a revered figure among insurgents for his contributions from 1988 to 1991. His leadership exemplified the clan's integration into the SNM's command structure, where Arap fighters bolstered offensives against government positions, including early raids that disrupted Somali National Army supply lines near Baligubadle. Arap contingents, drawing from local clansmen, participated in ad hoc operations launched from rear bases like Lanqeyrta, emphasizing decentralized tactics amid the regime's counteroffensives. During the escalation of the Somaliland War of Independence in 1988, Arap forces supported broader SNM advances, contributing to the capture of northern territories amid the government's retaliatory campaigns that targeted Isaaq populations. Their involvement extended to mopping-up actions in adjacent regions post-1991, securing clan-held areas against residual loyalist elements, though specific casualty figures attributable solely to Arap units remain undocumented in available records. These efforts underscored the sub-clan's alignment with Isaaq-led resistance, prioritizing territorial defense and regime overthrow over broader Somali unity narratives promoted by Mogadishu.

Post-SNM Influence and Somaliland Formation

Following the Somali National Movement's (SNM) capture of major northern cities in January 1991 and the subsequent declaration of Somaliland's independence at the Burao conference on May 18, 1991, the Arap sub-clan, centered in areas like Baligubadle—a former SNM operational hub—transitioned from wartime mobilization to supporting stabilization efforts amid inter-clan skirmishes among Isaaq factions. The Arap's influence helped mitigate risks of sub-clan fragmentation that threatened the nascent republic's cohesion, particularly as non-Isaaq groups like the Dhulbahante and Warsangeli initially resisted Isaaq dominance. A pivotal Arap contribution came during the disarmament phase, where the clan became the first among Isaaq sub-clans to commit fighters to demobilization, exerting peer pressure on rivals such as the Garhajis to reciprocate and enabling broader militia reduction by early 1994. This step was crucial for shifting from SNM's armed provisional administration—plagued by revenge killings and resource disputes—to institutionalized governance, as evidenced by the clan's backing of the 1993 Borama grand conference, which formalized a clan-vetted executive with balanced representation. Under President Mohamed Haji Ibrahim Egal (1993–2002), the Arap solidified their role by resolving internal divisions and aligning with his administration, which prioritized hybrid state-building through xeer (customary law) and guurti (clan elders' council) to embed sub-clan buy-in. Figures like Sultan Mohamed Sultan Farah exemplified this, mediating truces in Baligubadle that integrated Arap militias into national security frameworks while averting escalations seen elsewhere, such as Habar Yunis-Isaa Musa clashes. Their endorsement of Egal's policies, including limited fiscal decentralization to clan heartlands, helped forge Somaliland's de facto stability, contrasting with southern Somalia's warlordism, though it reinforced Isaaq primacy in core institutions.

Notable Individuals

Military and Political Figures

Hassan Isse Jama, an Arap member of the Isaaq clan, was among the founders of the Somali National Movement (SNM) on April 6, 1981, in London, alongside figures such as Ahmed Mohamed Gulaid and Hassan Adan Wadadid, initiating armed resistance against the Siad Barre regime. As deputy chairman of the SNM, he contributed to organizing the group's early operations from exile, drawing on Isaaq networks to sustain the insurgency that escalated in the late 1980s. Following the SNM's capture of northern Somalia in 1991, Jama served as the first Vice President of the short-lived Somaliland Republic under President Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur, helping to transition from militia rule to provisional governance structures amid clan reconciliation efforts. The Arap sub-clan's military contributions extended to senior commands within the SNM, with Baligubadle—predominantly Arap-inhabited—serving as a key headquarters for operations in the 1980s, underscoring their logistical and combat roles in the Isaaq-led rebellion. Post-independence, Arap figures have held high-ranking positions in Somaliland's armed forces, reflecting the sub-clan's ongoing influence in national security institutions formed from SNM remnants.

Other Prominent Members

Farah Nur Wa'ays (1862–1932), a celebrated Somali poet from the Arap sub-clan of the Isaaq, gained renown for his verses critiquing colonial encroachments and socio-political realities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His poetry often invoked themes of resistance and cultural preservation, exemplified by the line "Waa duni la kala iibsadaan nala ogaysiine," which translates to "It is a world bought and sold without our knowledge," highlighting the alienation of local populations from imperial transactions. While also noted as a warrior, Nur's enduring legacy stems from his literary contributions that influenced Somali oral traditions.

Controversies and Criticisms

Clan Conflicts and Accusations

In the aftermath of the Somali civil war, the Arap sub-clan, predominant in Hargeisa's Ahmed Dhegah district, has been accused of appropriating properties abandoned by Gadabursi clan members who fled the area amid fighting in the late 1980s and early 1990s. During the conflict, many Gadabursi, who had aligned with the Siad Barre regime against the Somali National Movement, evacuated urban centers like Hargeisa, leaving behind homes and businesses that were subsequently occupied by returning Isaaq families, including Arap individuals. This led to longstanding grievances over land ownership, exacerbated by Somaliland's informal restitution processes favoring dominant local clans, though traditional elders have mediated some returns without formal legal resolution. More recently, in December 2024, the Arap sub-clan became embroiled in violent clashes in Da'awaley village, Deghabur zone of Ethiopia's Somali Regional State, stemming from a land dispute with the Ogaden clan's Fiqi Cigal sub-clan. Ethiopian authorities reported that an armed group, allegedly including Arap militias from Somaliland, crossed the border and killed at least 30 Liyuu Police paramilitary members and 53 civilians in retaliatory attacks, framing it as an incursion fueled by Somaliland's irredentist claims to the Haud and Reserved Areas. In contrast, Somaliland officials and Arap representatives accused the Ogaden-dominated Liyuu Police of initiating the violence by massacring over 40 civilians from the Samane branch of the Arap clan during a supposed peace mediation effort, displacing hundreds and burying victims in mass graves. These conflicting narratives highlight broader tensions over pastoral resources and border demarcations, with Ethiopian sources emphasizing Somaliland provocation amid the January 2024 port deal, while Somaliland-aligned reports portray it as unprovoked ethnic targeting by regional forces. Such incidents reflect recurring accusations against the Arap of exacerbating inter-clan frictions through militia actions, though evidence remains contested and often clan-partisan, with no independent verification establishing clear culpability. Traditional mediation by elders from neutral clans has de-escalated immediate fighting in Da'awaley, but underlying disputes over grazing lands persist, contributing to over 80 deaths in the episode.

Role in Broader Somali Civil War Narratives

The Arap clan's role in the Somali Civil War is predominantly situated within the northern theater, as a sub-clan contributing fighters and logistical support to the Isaaq-led Somali National Movement (SNM), formed in 1981 to counter Siad Barre's repressive policies targeting northern communities. Early SNM guerrilla operations, including the group's inaugural armed engagements in 1982 from bases in the Hawd region, relied on local Arap forces raised at sites like Lanqeyrta, marking the onset of sustained insurgency against government troops. This involvement escalated amid Barre's 1988 scorched-earth campaign against the Isaaq, which killed approximately 50,000 civilians and displaced 650,000, prompting Arap participation in SNM counteroffensives that liberated Hargeisa and Burao from regime control. In overarching civil war historiography, the Arap's contributions via the SNM are depicted as instrumental in fracturing Barre's military hold on the northwest, thereby accelerating the regime's collapse in January 1991 by stretching its forces across multiple clan insurgencies. Southern narratives, dominated by Hawiye and Darod factions, sometimes frame the northern rebellion—including Arap efforts—as self-interested separatism that undermined unified opposition to Barre, prioritizing Isaaq territorial recovery over southward advances toward Mogadishu. Conversely, accounts emphasizing causal sequences of state failure credit the SNM's successes, bolstered by sub-clans like the Arap, with hastening Barre's ouster and enabling the northwest's de facto secession, which contrasted sharply with the factional implosion in the south following the United Somali Congress's capture of the capital. Post-1991, Arap involvement receded from southern battlegrounds, aligning instead with Somaliland's consolidation under SNM auspices, where their presence in districts like Baligubadle supported internal stabilization efforts amid nationwide fragmentation. This northern divergence has shaped dualistic narratives: one viewing Arap and Isaaq actions as a precipitant of Somalia's balkanization, diverting potential alliances against Barre; the other as a pragmatic response to genocide-scale atrocities, yielding a functional proto-state insulated from the south's warlordism and Islamist insurgencies. Empirical analyses underscore that without the northern front's drain on regime resources—facilitated by clans including the Arap—Barre might have quelled southern revolts more effectively, altering the war's trajectory toward prolonged anarchy.

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  22. http://www.geocurrents.info/blog/2024/12/22/hope-and-peril-in-somaliland/
  23. https://saxafimedia.com/clanship-and-contract-in-northern-somaliland/
  24. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2013/06/12/clans.pdf
  25. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/ethiopia0608/ethiopia0608.htm
  26. https://www.waryatv.com/2024/12/25/isaaq-ogaden-conflict/
  27. https://hornobserver.com/articles/3091/Somaliland-Labels-Ethiopian-Somaliland-Border-Attack-a-Massacre
  28. https://dokumen.pub/muslims-in-the-diaspora-the-somali-communities-of-london-and-toronto-9781442677470.html
  29. https://fount.aucegypt.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3383&context=retro_etds
  30. https://library.fes.de/libalt/journals/swetsfulltext/16725935.pdf
  31. https://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/somalia/94960.htm
  32. https://brill.com/display/book/9789004222540/B9789004222540-s005.pdf
  33. https://www.interpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/2008_SomS_Interpeace_APD_Statebuilding_EN.pdf
  34. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/somaliland-horn-africas-breakaway-state
  35. https://somali-jna.org/downloads/APD_Governance_09January.pdf
  36. https://successfulsocieties.princeton.edu/document/3159
  37. https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/irbc/1992/en/93014
  38. https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/writenet/1995/en/54273
  39. https://www.c-r.org/accord/somalia/endless-war-brief-history-somali-conflict
  40. https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/10546/122751/5/bk-somali-conflict-part5-010194-en.pdf
  41. https://www.progressio.org.uk/sites/progressio.org.uk/files/Somaliland-Country-Report-Mark-Bradbury.pdf
  42. https://successfulsocieties.princeton.edu/document/2918
  43. https://wardheernews.com/the-flame-that-consumes-political-nihilism-and-its-impact-on-somalia/
  44. https://somalilandsun.com/xasan-ciise/
  45. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4006165
  46. https://somalilandsun.com/somaliland-without-our-knowledge-5-revered-europeans-and-rejected-natives/
  47. https://orca.cardiff.ac.uk/id/eprint/58088/1/final_report-final_2010_04_12.pdf
  48. http://www.somalilandlaw.com/APD_Landbased_conflict.pdf
  49. https://www.thereporterethiopia.com/43150/
  50. https://somalilandchronicle.com/2024/12/27/liyuu-paramilitary-forces-massacre-civilians-in-ethiopias-somali-region/
  51. https://saxafimedia.com/ethiopia-cry-for-justice-daawalley-act-now/
  52. https://www.horndiplomat.com/2024/12/daawaley-massacre-ethiopias-somali-regional-forces-accused-of-large-scale-atrocity/
  53. https://puntlandpost.net/2024/12/26/somaliland-administration-minister-condemns-liyu-police-for-daawaley-atrocities/
  54. https://dokumen.pub/the-country-that-does-not-exist-a-history-of-somaliland-1787382036-9781787382039.html
  55. https://newlinesmag.com/reportage/inside-the-newest-conflict-in-somalias-long-civil-war/
  56. https://jamestown.org/program/clan-and-conflict-in-somalia-al-shabaab-and-the-myth-of-transcending-clan-politics/
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