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Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus niger (/ˌæspərˈdʒɪləs/ /ˈnaɪdʒər/) is a mold classified within the Nigri section of the Aspergillus genus. The Aspergillus genus consists of common molds found throughout the environment within soil and water, on vegetation, in fecal matter, on decomposing matter, and suspended in the air. Species within this genus often grow quickly and can sporulate within a few days of germination. A combination of characteristics unique to A. niger makes the microbe invaluable to the production of many acids, proteins and bioactive compounds. Characteristics including extensive metabolic diversity, high production yield, secretion capability, and the ability to conduct post-translational modifications are responsible for A. niger's robust production of secondary metabolites. A. niger's capability to withstand extremely acidic conditions makes it especially important for the industrial production of citric acid.
A. niger causes a disease known as "black mold" on certain fruits and vegetables such as grapes, apricots, onions, and peanuts, and is a common contaminant of food. It is ubiquitous in soil and is commonly found in indoor environments, where its black colonies can be confused with those of Stachybotrys (species of which have also been called "black mold"). A. niger is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration for use in food production, although the microbe is capable of producing toxins that affect human health.
Aspergillus niger is included in Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati, section Nigri. The section Nigri includes 15 related black-spored species that may be confused with A. niger, including A. tubingensis, A. foetidus, A. carbonarius, and A. awamori. In 2004, a number of morphologically similar species were described by Samson et al.
In 2007, the strain of ATCC 16404 Aspergillus niger was reclassified as Aspergillus brasiliensis (refer to publication by Varga et al.). This required an update to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia and the European Pharmacopoeia, which commonly use this strain throughout the pharmaceutical industry.
A. niger is a strict aerobe; therefore, it requires oxygen to grow. The fungus can grow in a range of environmental conditions; it can grow at temperatures ranging from 6 to 47 °C (43–117 °F). As a mesophile, its optimal temperature range is 35 to 37 °C (95–99 °F). It can tolerate pH ranging from 1.5 to 9.8. A. niger is xerophilic, meaning it can grow and reproduce in environments with very little water. It can also grow in humid conditions even tolerating environments with 90-100% relative humidity. The fungus is most commonly grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA), but it can grow on many different types of growth media including Czapek-Dox agar, lignocellulose agar, and several others.
Aspergillus niger has a genome consisting of roughly 34 megabases (Mb) organized into eight chromosomes. The DNA contains 10,785 genes that are transcribed and translated into 10,593 proteins.
Two strains of A. niger have been sequenced. Strain CBS 513.88 produces enzymes used in industrial applications while strain ATCC 1015 is the wildtype strain of ATCC 11414 used to produce industrial citric acid (CA). The A. niger ATCC 1015 genome was sequenced by the Joint Genome Institute in a collaboration with other institutions. Completed sequences have been used to uncover orthologous genes and pathways involved in fungal metabolism, specifically the catabolism of monosaccharides. The ability of A. niger to change its metabolism depending on the carbon sources and other nutrients present in its environment has enabled the microorganism to survive and be found in almost all ecosystems. Further research is being done to study these mechanisms for all fungi using the complete sequenced genome of A. niger.
There are two ways in which Aspergillus niger can be grown for industrial purposes: solid state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fermentation (SmF). SSF uses a solid substrate with nutrients and minimal moisture to grow microorganisms. Nutrients such as nitrogen and carbon come from agricultural byproducts such as wheat bran, sugar pulp, rice husks, and corn flour. SSF gives better yield of microbe products and is more cost effective than SmF due to using agricultural byproducts. SSF is predominantly used over SmF. In SmF, microbes are grown in a liquid medium inside large aseptic fermentation vessels. These vessels are expensive pieces of equipment that provide more water for growth and allow for tight control of environmental factors, such as temperature and pH, that affects microbial growth.
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Aspergillus niger
Aspergillus niger (/ˌæspərˈdʒɪləs/ /ˈnaɪdʒər/) is a mold classified within the Nigri section of the Aspergillus genus. The Aspergillus genus consists of common molds found throughout the environment within soil and water, on vegetation, in fecal matter, on decomposing matter, and suspended in the air. Species within this genus often grow quickly and can sporulate within a few days of germination. A combination of characteristics unique to A. niger makes the microbe invaluable to the production of many acids, proteins and bioactive compounds. Characteristics including extensive metabolic diversity, high production yield, secretion capability, and the ability to conduct post-translational modifications are responsible for A. niger's robust production of secondary metabolites. A. niger's capability to withstand extremely acidic conditions makes it especially important for the industrial production of citric acid.
A. niger causes a disease known as "black mold" on certain fruits and vegetables such as grapes, apricots, onions, and peanuts, and is a common contaminant of food. It is ubiquitous in soil and is commonly found in indoor environments, where its black colonies can be confused with those of Stachybotrys (species of which have also been called "black mold"). A. niger is classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the US Food and Drug Administration for use in food production, although the microbe is capable of producing toxins that affect human health.
Aspergillus niger is included in Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati, section Nigri. The section Nigri includes 15 related black-spored species that may be confused with A. niger, including A. tubingensis, A. foetidus, A. carbonarius, and A. awamori. In 2004, a number of morphologically similar species were described by Samson et al.
In 2007, the strain of ATCC 16404 Aspergillus niger was reclassified as Aspergillus brasiliensis (refer to publication by Varga et al.). This required an update to the U.S. Pharmacopoeia and the European Pharmacopoeia, which commonly use this strain throughout the pharmaceutical industry.
A. niger is a strict aerobe; therefore, it requires oxygen to grow. The fungus can grow in a range of environmental conditions; it can grow at temperatures ranging from 6 to 47 °C (43–117 °F). As a mesophile, its optimal temperature range is 35 to 37 °C (95–99 °F). It can tolerate pH ranging from 1.5 to 9.8. A. niger is xerophilic, meaning it can grow and reproduce in environments with very little water. It can also grow in humid conditions even tolerating environments with 90-100% relative humidity. The fungus is most commonly grown on potato dextrose agar (PDA), but it can grow on many different types of growth media including Czapek-Dox agar, lignocellulose agar, and several others.
Aspergillus niger has a genome consisting of roughly 34 megabases (Mb) organized into eight chromosomes. The DNA contains 10,785 genes that are transcribed and translated into 10,593 proteins.
Two strains of A. niger have been sequenced. Strain CBS 513.88 produces enzymes used in industrial applications while strain ATCC 1015 is the wildtype strain of ATCC 11414 used to produce industrial citric acid (CA). The A. niger ATCC 1015 genome was sequenced by the Joint Genome Institute in a collaboration with other institutions. Completed sequences have been used to uncover orthologous genes and pathways involved in fungal metabolism, specifically the catabolism of monosaccharides. The ability of A. niger to change its metabolism depending on the carbon sources and other nutrients present in its environment has enabled the microorganism to survive and be found in almost all ecosystems. Further research is being done to study these mechanisms for all fungi using the complete sequenced genome of A. niger.
There are two ways in which Aspergillus niger can be grown for industrial purposes: solid state fermentation (SSF) and submerged fermentation (SmF). SSF uses a solid substrate with nutrients and minimal moisture to grow microorganisms. Nutrients such as nitrogen and carbon come from agricultural byproducts such as wheat bran, sugar pulp, rice husks, and corn flour. SSF gives better yield of microbe products and is more cost effective than SmF due to using agricultural byproducts. SSF is predominantly used over SmF. In SmF, microbes are grown in a liquid medium inside large aseptic fermentation vessels. These vessels are expensive pieces of equipment that provide more water for growth and allow for tight control of environmental factors, such as temperature and pH, that affects microbial growth.