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United States Fleet
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The United States Fleet was an organization in the United States Navy from 1922 until after World War II. The acronym CINCUS, pronounced "sink us", was used for the Commander in Chief, United States Fleet. This was replaced by COMINCH in December, 1941, under the Executive Order 8984, when it was redefined and given operational command over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Asiatic Fleets, as well as all naval coastal forces.[1] The Executive Order 9096 authorized the offices of the CNO and COMINCH to be held by a single officer; Admiral Ernest J. King was first to do so, and in 1944 was promoted to the five-star rank of fleet admiral.[2]
Establishment
[edit]The directive of 6 December 1922 combined the U.S. Pacific Fleet and the U.S. Atlantic Fleet to form the United States Fleet. The main body of its ships, the Battle Fleet, was stationed in the Pacific Ocean and the Scouting Fleet was stationed in the Atlantic Ocean. In addition, the "Control Force", protecting the Atlantic sea lanes, and the "Fleet Base Force" were included. Remaining independent of the United States Fleet were the Asiatic Fleet, the Naval Forces in Europe, the Special Service Squadron (Caribbean), and all U.S. Navy submarines.
During 1930, the Battle Fleet and Scouting Fleet were renamed the Battle Force and the Scouting Force. The Submarine Force was also placed under control of the CINCUS. The Control Force was abolished in 1931. The Special Service Squadron and the Asiatic Fleet were retained, both still apparently independent of the U.S. Fleet. The United States Fleet was reorganized on 1 April 1931 into Battle Force, Scouting Force, Submarine Force, and Base Force.[3]
Reorganization in 1941
[edit]With the start of World War II in Europe, the U.S. Navy began to plan for the possibility of war in the Atlantic as well as the Pacific. On 1 February 1941, General Order 143 was issued, abolishing the "United States Fleet" organization. In its place, the U.S. Atlantic Fleet and the U.S. Pacific Fleet were re-established, each under its own commander in chief. The Asiatic Fleet remained an independent organization as before.
The additional title of Commander in Chief, United States Fleet was given to one of the three fleet commanders (Atlantic, Pacific, or Asiatic) in the event of two or more fleets operating together. Except for this provision, the individual commanders in chief were responsible directly to the President of the United States and the Secretary of the Navy.
Rear Admiral Husband E. Kimmel was appointed the Commander in Chief, United States Fleet (CINCUS) and the Commander in Chief, United States Pacific Fleet (CINCPAC) on 1 February 1941, carrying the temporary rank of admiral starting on that date. Kimmel was relieved as the CINCUS / CINCPAC on 17 December 1941, shortly after the devastating Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
On the following day, by Executive Order 8984[4] of 18 December 1941, the position of Commander in Chief, United States Fleet (COMINCH) was redefined, and given operational command over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Asiatic Fleets, as well as all naval coastal forces. The acronym change from CINCUS to COMINCH was suggested by Admiral Ernest J. King, who feared that the pronunciation of the post would be demoralizing in the wake of the Pearl Harbor attack.[5] On 20 December, Admiral Ernest J. King was assigned as the COMINCH. One important difference from the previous post of CINCUS was that Admiral King insisted that his headquarters would always be in Washington, D.C., rather than with the Fleet.
Dividing command of the Navy between the COMINCH, Admiral King, and the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), Admiral Harold R. Stark, did not prove to be very effective. President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed this problem with his Executive Order 9096 of 12 March 1942, which designated that the offices of the CNO and COMINCH would be held by a single officer, and Admiral King was selected to be CNO in addition to being COMINCH. King relieved Stark as CNO on 29 March 1942, and wore both of these "hats" for the remainder of the war.
Abolition
[edit]After the war, the position of Commander in Chief, United States Fleet was no longer needed. Thus, on 29 September 1945, President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9635, which revoked both EO 8984 & EO 9096 and transferred all the responsibilities of the COMINCH to the CNO.[6] Since that time, the CNO has nearly always been the highest-ranking U.S. Navy officer. Following passage of the National Security Act of 1947, the CNO is by law the highest-ranking naval officer on active duty, except when the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (a position created by the 1949 amendments of the National Security Act) and/or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (a position created by the Goldwater-Nichols Act in 1986) is also a U.S. Navy officer.
Leadership
[edit]Commanders of the United States Fleet:
- Hilary P. Jones 7 December 1922 – 3 August 1923
- Robert E. Coontz 4 August 1923 – 30 September 1925
- Samuel S. Robison 1 October 1925 – 4 September 1926
- Charles F. Hughes 5 September 1926 – 7 November 1927
- Henry A. Wiley 8 November 1927 – 7 March 1929
- William V. Pratt 8 March 1929 – 16 September 1930
- Jehu V. Chase 17 September 1930 – 15 September 1931
- Frank H. Schofield 16 September 1931 – 9 August 1932
- Richard H. Leigh 10 August 1932 – 10 June 1933
- David F. Sellers 10 June 1933 – 18 June 1934
- Joseph M. Reeves 26 February 1934 – 23 June 1936
- Arthur J. Hepburn 24 June 1936 – 31 January 1938
- Claude C. Bloch 1 February 1938 – 6 January 1940
- James O. Richardson 6 January 1940 – 5 January 1941
- Husband Kimmel 5 January 1941 – 17 December 1941
- William S. Pye (temporary) 17 December 1941 – 30 December 1941.
- Ernest King (also Chief of Naval Operations from 12 March 1942) 30 December 1941 – 10 October 1945
References
[edit]- ^ – via Wikisource.
- ^ Norman Polmar, p.33
- ^ King, Ernest J.; Whitehill, Walter Muir (1952). Fleet Admiral King A Naval Record (First ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. p. 227.
- ^ "Executive Orders, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1941". National Archives. 18 December 1941. Retrieved 22 January 2009.
Executive Order 8984, Prescribing the Duties of the Commander in Chief of the United States Fleet and the Co-operative Duties of the Chief of Naval Operations, Signed: December 18, 1941
- ^ Borneman, Walter R. (2012). The Admirals: Nimitz, Halsey, Leahy and King – The Five-Star Admirals Who Won the War at Sea. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-09784-0.
- ^ Executive Orders Disposition Tables; Truman, 1945, National Archives and Records Administration, 2018-07-21.
Sources
[edit]- Buell, Thomas. Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King. Boston: Little Brown & Co. 1980. ISBN 0-316-11469-3.
- Furer, Julius. Administration of the Navy Department in World War II. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1959.
- King, Ernest J., and Walter M. Whitehill. Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record. New York, WW Norton & Co. 1952.
- Polmar, Norman (2005). The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet (18th ed.). Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-591-14685-8.
External links
[edit]- Notes on U.S. Fleet Organisation and Disposition, 1898–1941
- Fleet Forces Command Archived 23 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine
United States Fleet
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Formation and Early Organization
Precursor Fleets
The U.S. Atlantic Fleet was formally established on January 1, 1906, under President Theodore Roosevelt's directive to consolidate naval forces amid growing hemispheric interests, particularly following the acquisition of bases in the Caribbean; this merged the existing North Atlantic Squadron and South Atlantic Squadron into a unified command responsible for operations along the eastern seaboard and into the Atlantic approaches.[3] The fleet's creation reflected a strategic shift toward concentrated power projection, with initial emphasis on battleship concentrations for deterrence against European naval influences in the Americas, as evidenced by the deployment of the "Great White Fleet" in subsequent years for global demonstrations of capability. Parallel to this, the U.S. Pacific Fleet emerged from the reorganization of Pacific-facing squadrons, with the Pacific Squadron and Asiatic Squadron combined in 1907 to address expanding responsibilities from the West Coast to Asia-Pacific waters, including protection of the Philippines and Hawaii; formal designation as the Pacific Fleet occurred on February 28, 1910, incorporating elements of the First Torpedo Flotilla and emphasizing cruiser and destroyer forces for scouting and commerce protection. These fleets operated semi-independently before World War I, with the Pacific Fleet gaining precedence post-1916 as battleships shifted westward in response to tensions with Japan, while the Atlantic Fleet focused on European convoy duties after U.S. entry into the war in 1917.[1] Additional precursor elements included the Asiatic Fleet, redesignated from the Asiatic Squadron on December 31, 1902, which maintained a forward presence in Chinese and Philippine waters but remained distinct from the main ocean fleets until partial integration into Pacific operations. This squadron-based structure, inherited from 19th-century precedents like the Pacific Squadron (established 1818) and East India Squadron (1835), prioritized dispersed patrols over unified fleet maneuvers, limiting coordinated exercises until the early 20th-century reforms under Secretaries of the Navy like William H. Moody. By 1922, these entities—primarily the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets—provided the operational core for the consolidated United States Fleet, with approximately 70% of battleship tonnage allocated to the Pacific-oriented Battle Force.[7]Establishment in 1922
The United States Fleet was formally established on December 6, 1922, through General Order No. 94 issued by Secretary of the Navy Edwin Denby, which merged the existing U.S. Pacific Fleet and U.S. Atlantic Fleet into a unified command structure.[8] This reorganization responded to post-World War I lessons on fleet coordination and strategic priorities, particularly the need for concentrated naval power in the Pacific amid emerging threats from Japan, while maintaining Atlantic capabilities for hemispheric defense.[1][2] The new fleet's primary component, the Battle Fleet, comprised the bulk of battleships, cruisers, and supporting vessels, positioned on the U.S. West Coast with its headquarters in California to enable rapid projection toward Asia.[2] A secondary Scouting Force, including lighter units for reconnaissance and screening, operated from the East Coast to cover Atlantic approaches and conduct training exercises.[1] This division allowed for flexible tasking: the Battle Fleet focused on decisive engagements in distant waters, while the Scouting Force emphasized patrol and rapid reinforcement, reflecting empirical assessments from World War I convoy operations and prewar wargames that highlighted the risks of divided commands in prolonged conflicts.[9] Initial command fell to Admiral Samuel S. Robison as Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet (CinCUS), overseeing approximately 300 ships, including 18 battleships, numerous destroyers, and early aircraft carriers like USS Langley, though fleet strength was constrained by the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty limiting capital ship tonnage to 525,000 for the U.S.[2] The establishment emphasized operational readiness over administrative silos, instituting regular cross-fleet maneuvers to test integration, as evidenced by subsequent Fleet Problems that validated the structure's emphasis on carrier-air integration and long-range scouting.[10] This setup endured until 1941, providing a scalable framework for wartime expansion based on proven causal links between unified command and battle outcomes in prior naval engagements.[1]Interwar Developments
Fleet Problem Exercises
The Fleet Problem exercises consisted of twenty-one large-scale maneuvers conducted annually by the United States Navy from 1923 to 1940, designated Fleet Problem I through XXI, to simulate fleet operations in potential conflicts, primarily against a peer adversary like Japan under "Orange" war plans or Germany under "Black" plans.[11][12] These unscripted exercises involved the bulk of the U.S. Fleet, testing tactics, logistics, and emerging technologies such as aircraft carriers, submarines, and amphibious assault methods across vast ocean areas, often spanning thousands of miles.[12] A planned Fleet Problem XXII for January 1941 was cancelled due to escalating global tensions.[11] Early exercises, such as Fleet Problem I in 1923 off the coast of Panama, focused on battleship-centric fleet maneuvers and basic logistical challenges like underway refueling, which was first practiced in Fleet Problem II in 1924.[12] By the mid-1920s, innovations like improved cryptography were tested in Fleet Problem V (1925), emphasizing secure communications in fleet operations.[12] The exercises evolved to incorporate naval aviation, with Fleet Problem IX in January 1929 marking the first test of an independent carrier task force; here, the USS Saratoga (CV-3) launched a surprise 70-plane strike on 26 January against the Panama Canal's Gatun and Miraflores Locks, simulating a Black Force raid that "destroyed" the infrastructure despite the carrier being "sunk" twice by defending battleships and a submarine.[13][12] This demonstrated carriers' strategic reach but also their vulnerability to surface and subsurface threats, prompting refinements in escort requirements and high-tempo flight operations.[13] Subsequent problems further validated carrier dominance: Fleet Problem X (1930) featured the USS Lexington (CV-2) leading an independent strike group, while Fleet Problem XIII (1932) saw the Saratoga conduct a simulated attack on Pearl Harbor to probe base defenses.[12][11] Fleet Problem XIV (1933) divided carrier forces to target U.S. West Coast cities, underscoring the need for dispersed operations and faster escorts.[12] Later exercises addressed logistics, as in Fleet Problem XX (1939), and refined carrier tactics in the Hawaii area during Fleet Problem XXI (1940), the final pre-war maneuver focused on large-scale fleet actions.[12] Amphibious operations were recurrently tested, revealing deficiencies in landing craft that influenced doctrinal shifts toward specialized equipment.[11][12] Overall, the exercises transitioned Navy thinking from battleship primacy to carrier-centric warfare, despite initial underestimation of submarines' offensive potential, which were largely confined to scouting roles.[11] They fostered innovation under fiscal constraints imposed by naval treaties, informing carrier construction expansions in the 1930s and laying groundwork for World War II task force organizations and Pacific campaign tactics.[11][12]Naval Arms Control Treaties
The Washington Naval Treaty, signed on February 6, 1922, by the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, France, and Italy, established tonnage ratios for capital ships at 5:5:3 for the US, UK, and Japan, respectively, capping US battleship and battlecruiser tonnage at 525,000 tons.[14] The treaty imposed a 10-year moratorium on new capital ship construction except for limited replacements and required the scrapping or conversion of excess vessels, leading the US Navy to dismantle 15 battleships and battlecruisers while converting the unfinished battlecruisers Lexington and Saratoga into aircraft carriers within the treaty's carrier limits of 135,000 total tons and 27,000 tons per vessel for the US.[15] These provisions directly constrained the US Fleet's composition, freezing its battleship strength at 15 active ships plus 3 in reserve and shifting emphasis toward qualitative improvements in permitted categories like cruisers, which were newly defined with a 10,000-ton displacement limit and 8-inch gun maximum.[14] The Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armaments, signed in London on April 22, 1930, by the US, UK, Japan, France, and Italy, extended and quantified restrictions on auxiliary vessels, permitting the US up to 314,000 tons of heavy cruisers (10,000 tons each, 8-inch guns), 180,000 tons of light cruisers, and 150,000 tons of destroyers while banning submarine commerce raiding and setting destroyer limits at 1,500 tons standard displacement.[16] For the US Fleet, this facilitated a balanced expansion of the Scouting Force with treaty-compliant vessels like the *Northampton*-class heavy cruisers (9,000-10,000 tons) but curtailed overall growth, enforcing replacement cycles based on ship age (e.g., 16 years for cruisers) and preventing a cruiser arms race that had emerged post-Washington.[17] US adherence emphasized defensive designs optimized for treaty tonnages, such as prioritizing gunpower over armor in cruisers, though critics within the Navy argued it prioritized parity over superiority amid rising Japanese capabilities.[17] Subsequent conferences, including the 1935-1936 London talks, failed to achieve binding agreements after Japan's denunciation of the 1930 treaty effective December 31, 1936, allowing unrestricted construction and exposing the fragility of interwar limits as European tensions mounted.[14] The US Fleet, reorganized in 1931 into Battle, Scouting, and Submarine Forces under Chief of Naval Operations directives, operated within these decaying constraints until 1937 legislation authorized escalator clauses for new construction, enabling programs like the Iowa-class battleships only after treaty ratios collapsed.[17] Overall, the treaties preserved US naval parity with Britain while curbing escalation against Japan but arguably fostered complacency in fleet modernization, as evidenced by the Navy's battleship-centric doctrine persisting despite carrier conversions.[18]Organizational Adjustments
In response to the constraints imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, which limited capital ship construction and emphasized the battle line's centrality, the United States Fleet underwent initial organizational structuring that divided assets into a Battle Fleet concentrated in the Pacific and a Scouting Fleet oriented toward Atlantic operations, facilitating focused training and deployment.[19] This setup, effective from December 6, 1922, aimed to maintain combat readiness with existing tonnage—approximately 525,000 tons of battleships and battlecruisers—while incorporating emerging scouting elements like cruisers and early aircraft carriers for reconnaissance ahead of the main battle force.[20] By the late 1920s, Fleet Problem exercises revealed deficiencies in coordinated scouting and rapid deployment, prompting doctrinal refinements such as the 1930 Tentative Fleet Dispositions and Battle Plans, which advocated fluid formations to counter potential Japanese aggression across vast Pacific distances.[21] These insights, drawn from annual maneuvers simulating decisive fleet engagements, underscored the need for structural separation between heavy striking power and forward screening forces to seize tactical initiative, as rigid battle line tactics proved vulnerable to air and submarine threats observed in exercises.[22] The most significant adjustment occurred on April 1, 1931, when the United States Fleet was reorganized into four primary components: the Battle Force, comprising the battle line of 15 battleships, three aircraft carriers (Saratoga, Lexington, and Ranger), and supporting vessels for offensive striking; the Scouting Force, including 10 heavy cruisers, 13 light cruisers, and destroyer squadrons for reconnaissance and screening; the Submarine Force with 67 submarines for covert operations; and the Base Force for logistical support with tenders, minesweepers, and auxiliaries.[23][19] This realignment, planned under Chief of Naval Operations William V. Pratt and signed into effect by Commander-in-Chief United States Fleet Pratt, responded to the London Naval Treaty of 1930's further tonnage caps (e.g., cruiser limits at 10 heavy and 19 light for the U.S.) by optimizing force composition for expeditionary warfare, enhancing interoperability in joint maneuvers, and allocating resources—totaling about 300 warships—to prioritize Pacific deterrence without expanding hull numbers.[6] Subsequent refinements in the mid-1930s integrated aviation more deeply, with the 1934 General Tactical Instructions (FTP 142) formalizing carrier task groups within the Battle and Scouting Forces to enable multicarrier operations tested in Fleet Problems XII-XVI, where scouting elements demonstrated the ability to detect and shadow enemy fleets over 1,000 miles.[21] These changes prioritized empirical lessons from simulations over treaty-mandated parity, fostering a doctrine of aggressive maneuver that compensated for numerical inferiority against projected adversaries by emphasizing speed, range, and combined arms—battleships for gunfire, carriers for air strikes, and cruisers for anti-submarine warfare—thus adapting the fleet's structure to causal realities of technological evolution and geographic imperatives.[22]World War II Role
1941 Reorganization
In response to escalating global tensions, particularly Japan's expansion in Asia and Germany's U-boat campaign in the Atlantic, the U.S. Navy restructured its primary operational command on February 1, 1941.[3] General Order No. 143, issued by the Chief of Naval Operations, abolished the existing United States Fleet organization—a single entity that had encompassed forces across multiple theaters since 1922—and divided it into three independent commands: the United States Pacific Fleet, the United States Atlantic Fleet, and the Asiatic Fleet.[24] Each fleet was assigned a four-star admiral as commander-in-chief, enabling decentralized operational control tailored to regional threats while remaining under the overall authority of the Chief of Naval Operations.[25] The Pacific Fleet, designated as the principal striking force, absorbed the former Battle Force, which included the bulk of the Navy's modern battleships, cruisers, and carriers previously based in the Pacific.[26] Headquartered at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii—following the fleet's relocation there in late 1940—it comprised approximately 9 battleships (such as the USS Pennsylvania and USS Colorado classes), 12 heavy and light cruisers, 4 aircraft carriers (including USS Enterprise and USS Lexington), over 60 destroyers, and a submarine force of about 20 boats as of the reorganization.[27] Admiral Husband E. Kimmel assumed command as Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Fleet (CINCPAC), succeeding Admiral James O. Richardson, who had been relieved partly due to his opposition to basing the fleet at Pearl Harbor amid perceived vulnerabilities.[28] The Atlantic Fleet, drawing from the former Scouting Force and Patrol Force, focused on convoy protection and neutrality enforcement in the western Atlantic, with Admiral Ernest J. King as its commander.[3] The smaller Asiatic Fleet, under Admiral Thomas C. Hart, retained forces in the Philippines and China waters, including 3 cruisers, 13 destroyers, 6 submarines, and auxiliary vessels for regional deterrence.[25] This division enhanced logistical efficiency and strategic focus but exposed the Pacific Fleet's concentration at Pearl Harbor, a decision later scrutinized after the Japanese attack on December 7, 1941.[27] The reorganization persisted until December 1941, when further wartime adjustments created the abbreviated title Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet (COMINCH) to unify operational oversight.[24]Atlantic Theater Operations
Prior to the United States' formal entry into World War II, the U.S. Navy initiated neutrality patrols in the western Atlantic on September 4, 1939, shortly after the German invasion of Poland, to report belligerent warship movements and protect American shipping from interference.[29] These patrols expanded under Presidential orders, with destroyers and patrol planes covering sea lanes to the British Isles and eastern seaboard, reflecting a shift toward supporting Allied efforts while maintaining nominal neutrality.[29] On February 1, 1941, the Atlantic Patrol Force was redesignated the U.S. Atlantic Fleet under Admiral Ernest J. King, who prioritized antisubmarine warfare preparations amid rising tensions.[30] Tensions escalated through undeclared naval engagements with German U-boats, including the USS Greer incident on September 4, 1941, where a U-boat fired torpedoes after being tracked by the destroyer, prompting President Roosevelt's "shoot-on-sight" order for Axis submarines in defensive waters.[31] Further clashes followed, such as the USS Kearny being torpedoed on October 17, 1941, with 11 sailors killed but the ship surviving, and the sinking of USS Reuben James (DD-245) by U-552 on October 31, 1941—the first U.S. Navy loss of the war, claiming 115 lives while escorting convoy HX 156.[31] Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and Germany's declaration of war on December 11, the Atlantic Fleet, now under Admiral Royal E. Ingersoll after King's promotion to Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Fleet on December 20, fully integrated into the Battle of the Atlantic, providing escorts for transatlantic convoys vital to British and Soviet supply lines.[32] The U.S. Fleet's Atlantic operations emphasized convoy protection and U-boat hunting, deploying destroyers like USS Roper (DD-147) and emerging escort carriers such as USS Santee (CVE-29) for air cover over slow merchant groups, countering the German wolfpack tactics that threatened Allied logistics.[32] In the South Atlantic, the Fourth Fleet under Vice Admiral Jonas H. Ingram patrolled against Axis raiders and submarines disrupting routes to Africa and the Cape of Good Hope.[33] To streamline antisubmarine warfare (ASW), Admiral King established the Tenth Fleet on May 20, 1943, as a dedicated command integrating intelligence, air, and surface assets without organic ships, which rapidly reduced U-boat sorties from 108 daily in May to 51 by August and positioned the U.S. Navy to sink more submarines than the Royal Navy in July 1943 alone.[34] These efforts yielded critical successes, including the capture of U-505 on June 4, 1944, by Task Group 22.3, providing Enigma code materials that enhanced Allied codebreaking; merchant tonnage losses to U-boats fell to one-tenth to one-quarter of 1942–mid-1943 peaks by mid-1943, securing sea lanes for operations like Torch in North Africa (November 1942) and the Normandy invasion buildup (Operation Bolero).[34] Overall, U.S. forces contributed to the destruction of 783 German U-boats by war's end, with the Atlantic Fleet's ASW innovations—such as hunter-killer groups and improved radar—proving decisive in tipping the balance against the Kriegsmarine's submarine campaign.[32]Pacific Theater Operations
Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which damaged or sank eight U.S. battleships and inflicted approximately 2,400 casualties but spared the Pacific Fleet's three aircraft carriers, the United States Fleet transitioned to a defensive strategy in the Pacific while prioritizing carrier-centric operations and force reconstitution under Commander in Chief, United States Fleet (COMINCH) Admiral Ernest J. King.[35] Admiral Chester W. Nimitz assumed command of the U.S. Pacific Fleet as Commander in Chief, Pacific (CINCPAC) in late December 1941, establishing Pearl Harbor as the operational hub despite ongoing repairs.[36] Initial efforts focused on early carrier raids, such as the February 1, 1942, strikes on Japanese facilities in the Marshall and Gilbert Islands by Task Force 8 under Vice Admiral William F. Halsey Jr., aimed at disrupting enemy logistics and demonstrating U.S. reach beyond Hawaii.[37] These actions, supported by intelligence from fleet radio units like FRUMEL in Australia, set the stage for decisive engagements.[38] The fleet's carrier forces achieved strategic parity through the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 3–8, 1942), where U.S. Navy aircraft from Lexington and Yorktown clashed with Japanese carriers, sinking the light carrier Shōhō and damaging Shōkaku, thereby thwarting an invasion of Port Moresby, New Guinea, at the cost of Lexington.[39] This was followed by the Battle of Midway (June 4–7, 1942), a turning point where U.S. dive bombers from Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown sank four Japanese fleet carriers (Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, and Hiryū), exploiting code-breaking intelligence to ambush the enemy invasion force and inflicting irreplaceable losses on Japan's naval aviation.[38] The Guadalcanal campaign (August 7, 1942–February 9, 1943) marked the shift to offensive amphibious operations, with fleet elements under Vice Admiral Frank J. Fletcher and Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner supporting the 1st Marine Division's landings; naval gunfire and carrier strikes secured Henderson Field, while surface actions like the November 12–15 Naval Battle of Guadalcanal neutralized Japanese reinforcement attempts, sinking two battleships and multiple cruisers despite U.S. losses including two task force commanders.[40] These battles, directed from COMINCH headquarters, emphasized attrition of Japanese naval strength through coordinated air, surface, and subsurface forces.[41] Under King's advocacy for a two-pronged advance, the fleet pursued a "leapfrogging" or island-hopping strategy in the Central Pacific, bypassing fortified atolls to seize key bases for airfields and logistics, as seen in the Gilbert Islands campaign (November 1943), where Marines captured Tarawa Atoll after intense fighting costing over 1,000 U.S. deaths, followed by the Marshall Islands operations (January–February 1944) that neutralized Kwajalein and enabled B-29 basing.[42] This approach extended to the Marianas (June–August 1944), with carrier Task Force 58 under Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher annihilating much of Japan's remaining carrier fleet in the Battle of the Philippine Sea ("Great Marianas Turkey Shoot"), downing over 600 enemy aircraft and sinking three carriers.[43] Submarine operations, integral to fleet strategy, interdicted Japanese supply lines, accounting for the majority of merchant tonnage sunk—over 5 million tons by war's end—despite losing 52 submarines and 3,505 personnel to mines, aircraft, and enemy submarines.[44][45] Later phases included the Philippines campaign (October 1944), where fleet carriers supported General Douglas MacArthur's landings at Leyte Gulf, culminating in the largest naval battle in history (October 23–26, 1944), which destroyed Japan's Combined Fleet through divided Japanese forces and U.S. air superiority. The Iwo Jima (February–March 1945) and Okinawa (April–June 1945) assaults represented the fleet's pinnacle of amphibious power projection; Okinawa, the largest Pacific operation, involved over 1,300 ships and faced 1,900 kamikaze sorties, sinking 36 U.S. vessels including the carrier Bunker Hill but securing bases for final strikes on Japan.[43] Fleet submarines and surface groups maintained blockade, while carrier raids devastated Japanese industry; these efforts, sustained by industrial output adding over 100 carriers and thousands of aircraft, forced Japan's surrender on September 2, 1945, after atomic bombings and Soviet entry, with the U.S. Navy suffering 55,000 combat deaths across theaters.[46][47]Command and Leadership
Commanders-in-Chief
Admiral Hilary P. Jones served as the first Commander-in-Chief of the United States Fleet from its establishment in December 1922 until August 1923, overseeing the integration of the former Atlantic and Pacific fleets into a unified structure with the bulk of forces based in the Pacific.[48] He was relieved by Admiral Robert E. Coontz, who commanded from August 1923 to September 1925 and directed the fleet's around-the-world cruise in 1925, demonstrating U.S. naval reach with 57 vessels visiting Australia and New Zealand.[49][50] Subsequent interwar commanders included Admiral William V. Pratt, who held the position from September 1929 to June 1930 after serving as Commander Battle Fleet; Pratt emphasized the growing importance of aircraft carriers and pushed for doctrinal shifts toward carrier-centric operations amid treaty limitations.[51][51] During the late 1930s, the role focused on preparing for potential conflict, with Admiral James O. Richardson assuming command in January 1940 and serving until February 1941; Richardson repeatedly warned against permanent basing of the fleet at Pearl Harbor, citing vulnerability to air attack, though his recommendations were overruled by higher civilian and naval authorities.[52] Admiral Husband E. Kimmel succeeded Richardson on February 1, 1941, simultaneously holding command of the Pacific Fleet until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, after which he was relieved.[27] Admiral Ernest J. King was appointed Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet (COMINCH) on December 20, 1941, assuming duties on December 30 and directing the Navy's global wartime operations from Washington, D.C., with a focus on unrestricted submarine warfare against Japan and coordination of Atlantic convoy protections.[53][54] On March 12, 1942, President Roosevelt combined the COMINCH role with Chief of Naval Operations under King via executive order, centralizing strategic control; King retained the position until December 1945, when the fleet commands were reorganized into separate Atlantic and Pacific entities.[54][53]| Commander-in-Chief | Term Start | Term End | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hilary P. Jones | December 1922 | August 1923 | Initial unification of fleets post-Washington Treaty.[48] |
| Robert E. Coontz | August 1923 | September 1925 | Oversaw 1925 global cruise; emphasized fleet readiness.[50] |
| William V. Pratt | September 1929 | June 1930 | Advanced carrier integration in exercises.[51] |
| James O. Richardson | January 1940 | February 1941 | Advocated against Pearl Harbor basing risks.[52] |
| Ernest J. King | December 1941 | December 1945 | Directed WWII operations; combined with CNO in 1942.[53] |