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A check pilot (or check airman) is an aircraft pilot who performs an oversight, safety, and qualification role for commercial pilots undergoing evaluation.[1][2] The role of the check pilot is to ensure that the flight crew member has met competency standards before the check airman releases the crew member from training and to ensure that those standards are maintained while the crew member remains in line service.

A check pilot is authorized to conduct the following:

  • Pilot proficiency or competency checks conducted as a qualification curriculum segment in the operator's approved training program, from either pilot seat in an aircraft, whether in flight, or in a simulator, as appropriate.
  • Flight instruction in the operator's approved training program, from either pilot seat in an aircraft in flight, or in a simulator, or both, as appropriate.
  • Supervision of the reestablishment of landing ability.
  • Special checks conducted as a qualification curriculum segment of the operator's approved training program, provided the check airman is qualified in the specific activity for which the special check is being conducted (such as Category II (CAT II) and Category III (CAT III) operations).
  • Certification of the satisfactory proficiency and knowledge of airmen after completion of a flight training curriculum segment or flight training module.
  • When authorized by the operator, ground instruction for airmen, and certification of the satisfactory completion by an airman of a ground training curriculum segment.

See also

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References

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Check pilot

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A check pilot, also known as a check airman, is an experienced aviator qualified and authorized by regulatory bodies such as the (FAA) to conduct evaluations, proficiency checks, and training for other pilots in aircraft or flight simulation training devices (FSTDs). Internationally, similar roles exist under bodies like the (EASA) and ICAO standards. These professionals ensure compliance with safety standards, airline procedures, and federal regulations by assessing pilots' knowledge, skills, and decision-making during simulated or actual flight scenarios. Check pilots perform a range of critical responsibilities, including administering initial operating experience (IOE) flights, line checks, and recurrent proficiency evaluations to maintain the operational readiness of flight crews. They may specialize as check pilots, who conduct in-flight assessments, or FSTD check pilots, focused on simulator-based . In addition to evaluation duties, check pilots often contribute to standardization efforts within airlines, mentoring new aviators and upholding uniform protocols to enhance overall . To qualify as a check pilot, individuals must hold appropriate pilot certificates and ratings, possess extensive flight experience—typically including minimum hours as pilot-in-command on specific aircraft types—and complete FAA-approved training programs, including recurrent proficiency checks. Approval requires recommendation from leadership, demonstrated proficiency in communication and , and ongoing by the FAA, often after serving in roles like flight instructors. At major s, check pilots—typically senior captains—earn premium compensation ranging from $180,000 to $400,000 annually plus additional pay for check duties, reflecting their pivotal role in .

Overview

Definition

A check pilot, also known as a check airman, is a qualified pilot authorized by aviation regulatory authorities, such as the (FAA), to evaluate, certify, and oversee the proficiency of other pilots in commercial or operations. This role involves assessing pilots' knowledge, skills, and performance to ensure compliance with operational standards. The terminology includes specific designations based on the evaluation environment. A "check pilot (aircraft)" is a person qualified to conduct flight checks in an actual for a particular type, while a "check pilot (FSTD)" is qualified to perform such checks or instruction-only in a flight training device (FSTD) for a specific aircraft type. The term "check airman" is used interchangeably with "check pilot" in certain regulatory contexts, such as under 14 CFR Part 135, emphasizing the evaluative function across both aircraft and simulator settings. The scope of a check pilot's duties is confined to oversight roles in proficiency evaluations, including competency checks, line checks, and qualification processes, without encompassing non-evaluative operational flying responsibilities. These functions are limited to ensuring pilots meet and recurrent requirements in controlled assessment scenarios.

Role in Aviation

Check pilots contribute significantly to aviation safety by conducting evaluations that verify pilots' adherence to established standards, thereby reducing the risks of accidents stemming from skill degradation or procedural lapses. These assessments ensure that pilots demonstrate proficiency in critical areas such as handling, emergency response, and , directly supporting the prevention of , which is a leading factor in aviation incidents. The (FAA) emphasizes that check pilots' role in certifying competency is essential to maintaining safety standards under regulations like 14 CFR § 135.293. In the broader training ecosystem, check pilots act as a vital link between foundational pilot education and operational flying, overseeing proficiency checks that confirm readiness for unsupervised duties. They facilitate recurrent training programs, which help sustain pilots' abilities over time and address evolving operational demands. For instance, in structured training environments like FAA Part 141 programs, check pilots perform independent progress evaluations to validate skill acquisition beyond initial instruction. This integration helps streamline the transition to line operations while upholding consistent training quality across the workforce. For airlines and operators, check pilots are instrumental in sustaining fleet-wide competency, including the validation of emergency procedures and overall crew performance under simulated and real-world conditions. By systematically assessing and providing feedback on competencies, they enable organizations to identify and rectify gaps, thereby enhancing operational reliability and margins. Standardized evaluations contribute to effective across airline training systems. With over 4,000 check pilots supporting U.S. as of 2017, their oversight is foundational to minimizing incident rates in regulated fleets.

Qualifications

Eligibility Requirements

To become a check pilot, candidates must meet stringent prerequisite , licensing, and personal qualifications established by regulatory authorities, ensuring they possess the expertise to evaluate other pilots safely and effectively. These requirements vary slightly by operation type but generally build on the standards for serving as (PIC). Experience thresholds emphasize substantial flight time to demonstrate operational proficiency. For instance, under FAA regulations for Part 121 air carrier operations, candidates must accumulate at least 1,000 hours in air carrier operations, either as PIC or in the relevant type, to qualify for PIC duties, which is a foundational requirement for check pilot roles. In Part 135 commuter operations, while no explicit 1,000-hour mandate exists, candidates must hold qualifications equivalent to PIC standards, typically including at least 1,500 total flight hours for an Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certificate, with a focus on type-specific . Recent activity requirements further ensure currency; for example, check pilots conducting evaluations in flight devices (FSTDs) must complete at least two flight segments as a required crewmember within the preceding 12 months or an approved line-observation program. Licensing prerequisites are rigorous and mandate advanced certifications. Candidates must possess an ATP certificate with appropriate category, class, and type ratings for the aircraft involved, along with instrument ratings. They must also remain current on recurrent training, proficiency checks, and any required medical certifications—though as of June 2024, the FAA eliminated the medical certificate requirement for check pilots functioning solely in FSTDs under Parts 121 and 135, allowing greater flexibility while prohibiting them from serving as flightcrew in actual aircraft without one. These elements ensure check pilots can legally and competently perform evaluations. Personal attributes play a critical role, with regulators and operators evaluating candidates for demonstrated , effective communication skills, and instructional . These qualities are assessed through observed , prior roles, and airline-specific reviews to confirm the to provide fair, constructive feedback that enhances . Variations exist based on operation type, reflecting the scale and complexity of fleets. In Part 121 operations for major air carriers, requirements often include additional supervisory experience, such as line checks or instructor duties, to handle larger and high-volume evaluations. Part 135 operations for smaller commuter or on-demand services have comparatively streamlined criteria, focusing on core PIC qualifications without the mandatory 1,000-hour air carrier experience, though operators may impose extra type-specific hours for fleet oversight.

Training and Certification Process

The training and certification process for check pilots, also known as check airmen under FAA regulations, ensures that individuals possess the necessary skills to evaluate pilot proficiency in accordance with 14 CFR Part 121 for air carrier operations. Initial training phases commence with ground school focused on evaluation techniques, including the duties of a check pilot, applicable provisions of Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, the air carrier's operating certificate and manual, and policies for pilot qualification and checking. This curriculum, which must be FAA-approved, emphasizes methods for assessing pilot performance, implementing corrective actions, and understanding flight simulation training device (FSTD) operations, such as controls, limitations, and environmental systems. Simulator proficiency training follows, incorporating flight segments that demonstrate competence in emergency procedures, seat-specific operations, and the evaluation of trainee responses during simulated scenarios. Certification evaluation requires practical assessments to validate the candidate's ability to conduct checks effectively. Aspiring check pilots must undergo by a senior check pilot, FAA inspector, or designated examiner while performing an actual proficiency check or supervising operating experience. This includes conducting observed check rides in an or FSTD and leading sessions to assess professional conduct, technical accuracy, and procedural adherence. FAA approval is granted upon satisfactory completion, with initial observation required within 24 calendar months of training, allowing a one-month before or after the due date to confirm ongoing competency. Recurrent requirements maintain check pilot qualifications through periodic and proficiency checks. Annual training ensures uniformity in evaluation standards across types and operational contexts, often delivered via FAA-approved programs that review regulatory updates and best practices. For check pilots using FSTDs, recurrent ground must occur every 12 calendar months, covering simulation data limitations, fault panel operations, and minimum equipment standards for maneuvers. Proficiency renewals are mandated every 24 months via FAA or designated examiner observation of a conducted check, though exact figures vary by operator. Airline-specific programs build on FAA baselines with tailored modules addressing proprietary procedures, such as route-specific navigation or fleet-unique systems. Major carriers like and integrate these into their Advanced Qualification Programs (AQPs), which use state-of-the-art FSTDs for scenario-based training on company operations, ensuring alignment with both regulatory and internal standards.

Responsibilities

Conducting Proficiency Checks

Check pilots conduct proficiency checks to evaluate pilots' operational competence in accordance with (FAA) standards, ensuring safe performance in or simulators. These evaluations integrate technical skills, , and crew coordination, typically spanning oral examinations, maneuver validations, and scenario-based simulations. Proficiency checks employ various formats tailored to regulatory requirements. Oral exams assess theoretical knowledge, such as regulations, aircraft systems, and emergency procedures, often preceding flight or simulator portions. Maneuver validations occur in the aircraft or full-flight simulators (FFS), testing specific tasks like takeoffs, landings, and instrument approaches per the FAA Airman Certification Standards (ACS). Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) represents a key format, simulating real-world line operations in an FFS without instructor interruptions to evaluate integrated performance under 14 CFR Part 121. Preparation involves thorough setup to align with FAA guidelines. Check pilots pre-brief pilots on scenarios, objectives, and roles, providing materials like briefings and dispatch releases while verifying pilot credentials, medical certificates, and equipment airworthiness. Routes and scenarios are selected based on the ACS or Practical Test Standards (PTS), incorporating operator-specific elements such as challenges or seasonal conditions, with annual updates for relevance. During execution, check pilots observe and grade pilot actions in a structured yet realistic environment. This includes monitoring takeoffs, en route navigation, emergency responses like engine failures, and (CRM) elements such as communication and workload distribution among crew members. In sessions, which last at least 4 hours across representative flight segments, the focus remains on uninterrupted operations to assess holistic proficiency without mid-scenario interventions. Performance is graded as satisfactory (S), unsatisfactory (U), or waived (W) against ACS criteria, emphasizing and procedural adherence. Post-check debriefs provide constructive feedback to reinforce strengths and address deficiencies. Check pilots lead discussions on observed CRM behaviors, technical errors, and corrective actions, often using video replays from FFS sessions to enhance learning. Documentation follows immediately, with results logged on FAA Form 8410-1 ( Proficiency/Qualification Check), including details on the check type, location, or simulator used, and pass/fail determination based on whether all maneuvers meet standardized thresholds. Logbook endorsements confirm completion, specifying the check pilot's authorization and outcome for .

Oversight and Evaluation Duties

Check pilots perform essential program oversight functions within organizations, including auditing training records to verify compliance with recurrent requirements and reporting any identified deficiencies to management or regulatory authorities such as the FAA. This involves reviewing pilot qualifications, ensuring adherence to schedules for proficiency checks, and documenting deviations to support corrective actions that maintain operational safety. In quality assurance, check pilots standardize evaluation practices across training instructors by aligning assessments with established guidelines, such as Master Difference Requirements (MDRs) and Operator Difference Requirements (ODRs), to resolve discrepancies and promote consistency. They also contribute to safety management systems (SMS) by conducting audits of operational processes, monitoring pilot currency and compliance with safety standards, and measuring the effectiveness of risk controls to enhance overall safety performance. Check pilots engage in mentorship and development by guiding junior pilots following evaluations, recommending targeted remedial to address performance gaps, and participating in incident investigations related to pilot performance. During supervised line flying or post-check debriefs, they provide instruction on operational procedures and corrective techniques, fostering professional growth while analyzing incident data to identify systemic deficiencies and propose preventive measures without assigning blame. Administrative roles encompass scheduling proficiency checks, maintaining databases of pilot qualifications and training records, and interfacing with regulatory audits to demonstrate program integrity. Check pilots assist in preparing and revising operational documentation, such as ODRs, ensuring accurate record-keeping in systems like the Pilot Training and Records System (PTRS) to facilitate FAA oversight and support continuous improvement in training programs.

Regulatory Framework

FAA Regulations

In the United States, the (FAA) regulates check pilots primarily through Title 14 of the (CFR), with specific provisions tailored to different aviation operations. For air carriers operating under Part 121, 14 CFR § 121.411 outlines the qualifications for check airmen (airplane) and check airmen (simulator), as amended effective June 18, 2024. A check airman (airplane) is defined as a person qualified and permitted to conduct flight checks or instruction in an , while a check airman (simulator) performs these duties in a flight simulator or flight training device (FSTD). These individuals must hold the appropriate airman certificates and ratings, complete initial and recurrent including proficiency checks under § 121.401, and satisfy § 121.413 on instructional methods and techniques. For check airmen (simulator), an additional requirement is completing at least two flight segments as a required crewmember or an approved line-observation program within the preceding 12 months before serving in that role. For commuter and on-demand operations under Part 135, 14 CFR § 135.337 establishes similar qualifications for check pilots, as amended effective June 18, 2024. A check pilot () is qualified to conduct flight checks in a particular type of , whereas a check pilot (FSTD) is limited to checks in an FSTD for that type. These pilots must possess the certificates and ratings required for , complete training and proficiency checks under § 135.293 and § 135.297, and undergo § 135.339 training on check pilot duties. Like Part 121, FSTD check pilots require recent flight experience, such as two flight segments or an approved line-observation program within 12 months prior to service. All qualifications must be approved by the FAA Administrator, with records maintained by the certificate holder. The process for check pilots involves approval from both the certificate holder and the FAA's principal operations (POI). Certificate holders nominate candidates who meet the regulatory qualifications, after which the POI evaluates them, often by observing the candidate conduct an actual check. Initial require demonstration of competence in instructional and skills, while recurrent mandate observations every 24 months to ensure ongoing proficiency. These approvals are documented in a letter of , specifying the scope of duties, such as conducting competency checks under § 135.293 or proficiency checks under § 135.297. Non-compliance with these regulations can result in enforcement actions by the FAA, including suspension or revocation of check pilot privileges, civil penalties up to $75,000 per violation for entities (as adjusted for inflation in 2025), and potential suspension of the operator's air carrier certificate. The FAA may issue a notice of proposed civil penalty following an investigation, with opportunities for informal conferences or appeals through the National Transportation Safety Board. FAA guidance has evolved to enhance check pilot roles, particularly for Part 135 operations. Notice N 8900.270, issued in July 2014, expanded check pilot functions to include additional competency checks under § 135.293(a), such as those for pilots without matching type ratings, provided they complete enhanced training and receive POI approval. This post-2014 update aimed to improve efficiency in smaller operations while maintaining safety oversight, requiring biennial POI observations and documentation in systems like the Pilot Training and Records System (PTRS). The 2024 amendments to §§ 121.411 and 135.337 further enhanced flexibility in meeting recent experience requirements for FSTD check pilots.

International Standards

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) establishes foundational global standards for aviation personnel licensing in Annex 1 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, which governs pilot qualifications and the designation of examiners responsible for conducting skill tests and proficiency checks in check pilot roles. These standards require states to ensure that examiners hold appropriate pilot licenses, demonstrate requisite experience, and receive authorization for assessments, with training organizations responsible for maintaining competency in evaluation procedures. The 14th edition of Annex 1, effective 3 November 2022, integrates competency-based training and assessment (CBTA) as a mandatory framework for flight crew licensing, emphasizing observable behaviors, performance outcomes, and continuous evaluation for check roles to enhance safety and adaptability in diverse operational environments, with full implementation for certain provisions by 26 November 2026. In the , the (EASA) regulates check pilot functions through Part-FCL Subpart K, which outlines requirements for examiners, including type rating examiners (TRE) and check airmen authorized to perform proficiency checks. Candidates must possess a valid commercial pilot license (CPL), multi-pilot license (MPL), or airline transport pilot license (ATPL) with applicable instrument and s, accumulate minimum flight experience such as 1,500 total hours (500 as pilot-in-command) for multi-pilot aeroplane TREs, and qualify as pilot-in-command on the relevant type. Additional mandates include completing an approved examiner training course covering regulations, assessment techniques, and , passing theoretical knowledge examinations on and human factors, and undergoing practical assessments of competence supervised by a senior examiner or authority representative, often in flight simulation training devices (FSTDs). Other jurisdictions adapt ICAO principles with localized variations. Transport Canada authorizes Approved Check Pilots (ACPs) under the Canadian Aviation Regulations (CARs) Subpart 703 for operations, requiring holders of an ATPL with type ratings, at least 1,000 hours on the aircraft type (including 500 as pilot-in-command), completion of a standardized ACP program, and approval to conduct pilot proficiency checks (PPCs). These checks may utilize approved FSTDs for efficiency, particularly in multi-crew environments, with ACP authorizations renewed every 24 months through , proficiency demonstrations, and audits to maintain . In the United Kingdom, the (CAA) post-Brexit aligns its framework with pre-existing EASA Part-FCL equivalents for flight examiners performing check duties, mandating a valid rating, minimum total flight hours varying by category (e.g., 1,000 hours for PPL examiners, 2,000 for CPL), recent type experience, and participation in a CAA-approved or . Proficiency checks incorporate FSTD usage for instrument and type renewals, with examiner certificates renewed every three years via supervised assessments and ongoing to ensure consistent evaluation practices. Harmonization of check pilot standards across borders is advanced through the International Air Transport Association's (IATA) Operational Safety Audit (IOSA) program, which scrutinizes international carriers' flight operations training systems under the IOSA Standards Manual (ISM) to verify compliance with qualified check airmen in proficiency programs. IOSA audits, conducted biennially, evaluate check airmen qualifications against ICAO-aligned criteria, including experience, training recency, and integration into competency-based assessments, thereby reducing variations in standards for global operations. This process addresses challenges in developing regions, where resource limitations may hinder robust oversight, by facilitating shared audit results and targeted improvements to bridge regulatory gaps and elevate safety uniformly.

Historical Development

Origins in Commercial Aviation

The role of check pilots emerged in military aviation training during the 1930s and 1940s, as the U.S. Army Air Corps expanded its pilot production to meet pre-World War II demands. In contract flying schools established across the country, a small cadre of Air Corps pilots served as evaluators, conducting check rides to assess trainee proficiency at critical intervals, such as after 20 and 40 hours of primary flight training in aircraft like the PT-17 or PT-19. These evaluations, part of a structured progression that included solo flights after 10-13 hours and a total of 60 flight hours with 175 landings before graduation, ensured only qualified individuals advanced, preventing washouts and standardizing skills amid rapid wartime scaling. This military framework, influenced by early demonstrations like James H. Doolittle's 1929 instrument flight that incorporated a check pilot for safety oversight, provided a template for proficiency verification that transitioned to civilian use as surplus pilots entered commercial service post-war. These U.S. practices were paralleled internationally by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), established in 1944, which began promoting standardized pilot proficiency checks through the 1944 Chicago Convention. In the 1950s, as boomed, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and (CAB) adapted these practices by introducing mandatory proficiency checks for air carriers under precursors to modern Part 121 regulations. A key step occurred in 1950 when authority was delegated to qualified private individuals to conduct examinations and tests for issuing pilot certificates, building on the CAA's 1940 designation of flight examiners for private pilot assessments. By 1952, the CAB mandated that large irregular air carriers designate sufficient check pilots and raise proficiency check standards to verify pilot competence, directly establishing the role in non-scheduled operations and emphasizing amid growing passenger volumes. These measures addressed the influx of ex-military aviators while aligning with broader CAB efforts to limit pilot flight hours—reinstating an 85-hour monthly cap in 1947—and require copilots on multi-engine aircraft for instrument or extended flights since 1937. The 1960s jet age accelerated the check pilot's integration, with airlines qualifying crews for turbine-powered fleets such as the Boeing 707. This expansion aligned with the 1958 Federal Aviation Act, which established the independent Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) and empowered Administrator Elwood Quesada to centralize oversight of air carrier operations, incorporating military-honed proficiency standards into federal mandates for enhanced . Quesada's leadership formalized evaluation protocols and culminated in 1959 CAB amendments to Civil Air Regulations Parts 42 and 46, which standardized proficiency check frequencies—every six months for captains and every 12 months for others—to accommodate the complexities of jet operations. These developments solidified the check pilot as a cornerstone of reliability during a transformative era.

Evolution of Standards

The 1970s and marked a pivotal era for check pilot standards, driven by high-profile incidents that underscored the need for improved human factors training. The 1977 , involving a collision between two 747s that resulted in 583 fatalities, highlighted deficiencies in crew communication and decision-making, prompting the aviation industry to prioritize (CRM) as a core component of pilot evaluations. In response, airlines began implementing CRM training in the early , and the FAA issued Advisory Circular in 1989, which integrated CRM principles into proficiency checks by emphasizing non-technical skills like teamwork and alongside technical maneuvers. These reforms required check pilots to assess CRM during Line Operational Simulations (LOS), using scenario-based evaluations to simulate real-world crew interactions, thereby evolving checks from purely flight-skill focused to holistic performance reviews. Building on this foundation, the 1990s and 2000s introduced technological and methodological advancements that refined check pilot practices. The FAA's Advanced Qualification Program (AQP), launched in 1990 under Special Federal Aviation Regulation (SFAR) 58 and later codified in 14 CFR Part 121 Subpart Y in 2005, shifted training and evaluation toward Competency-Based Training and Assessment (CBTA), allowing airlines to tailor proficiency checks to data-driven proficiency objectives rather than fixed hours. Under AQP, check pilots conduct scenario-based assessments in advanced simulators, incorporating CRM and threat/error management to evaluate pilots in integrated operational environments. Concurrently, the proliferation of Level D Full Flight Simulators (FFS), certified by the FAA since the 1980s but significantly enhanced in the 1990s with improved motion cueing and visuals, enabled more realistic proficiency checks for complex maneuvers like engine failures and low-visibility approaches without risking actual flight time. By the 2000s, these simulators became standard for recurrent evaluations, supporting AQP's emphasis on continuous improvement through performance data analysis. Post-2010 developments further expanded check pilot functions amid evolving safety priorities. The FAA's 2013 Pilot Certification and Qualification Requirements for Air Carrier Operations rule mandated Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certification for all Part 121 pilots and introduced enhanced training standards, indirectly broadening check pilots' roles by requiring them to administer practical tests for (SIC) pilots to demonstrate pilot-in-command-equivalent proficiency in simulators. This rule integrated 10 hours of simulator-based training into ATP pathways, emphasizing maneuvers like stalls and upset recovery in Level C or higher FFS, thus elevating the scope of proficiency checks to include advanced . In the , growing attention to pilot has influenced standards, with the FAA amending criteria in 2024 to streamline psychiatric assessments for conditions during certification, enabling treated pilots to maintain qualifications and participate in proficiency checks without undue barriers. These changes, informed by ongoing FAA collaboration with medical experts, aim to balance safety with accessibility in evaluations. Globally, U.S. standards have been shaped by (ICAO) recommendations, facilitated through bilateral aviation safety agreements (BASAs) with over 100 countries. These agreements, such as those under the U.S.-EU Safety Agreement, harmonize check pilot qualification and evaluation practices by aligning FAA rules with ICAO Annex 1 personnel licensing standards, including CRM and competency-based assessments. The Flight Safety Foundation's safety data and guidelines, shared via ICAO's Global Aviation Safety Plan, have influenced FAA updates by promoting evidence-based reforms, such as enhanced simulator use, through multilateral technical assistance. This international framework ensures U.S. check pilot standards evolve in concert with global best practices, mitigating risks in cross-border operations.

References

  1. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-I/subchapter-G/part-121/subpart-N/section-121.411
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  47. https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/aqp
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  51. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/part-61
  52. https://avweb.com/aviation-news/faa-amends-mental-health-evaluation-criteria-for-pilots/
  53. https://www.faa.gov/ame_guide/dec_cons/disease_prot/psycheval
  54. https://www.faa.gov/aircraft/air_cert/international/bilateral_agreements/overview
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  56. https://www.icao.int/sites/default/files/safety/GASP/Documents/Doc-10161-Ed-2-Advanced-Version.pdf
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