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Alla breve
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Alla breve [alla ˈbrɛːve] – also known as cut time or cut common time – is a musical meter notated by the time signature symbol 
(a C) with a vertical line through it, which is the equivalent of 2
2.[1] The term is Italian for "on the breve", originally meaning that the beat was counted on the breve (double whole note).[2]
Alla breve is a "simple-duple meter with a half-note pulse".[3] The note denomination that represents one beat is the minim or half-note. There are two of these per bar, so that the time signature 2
2 may be interpreted as "two minim beats per bar". Alternatively this is read as two beats per measure, where the half note gets the beat.
The name "common time" refers to 4
4, which has four beats to the bar, each of a quarter note (or crotchet).
Modern usage
[edit]In contemporary use, alla breve suggests a fairly quick tempo. Thus, it is used frequently for military marches. From about 1600 to 1900, its meaning with regard to tempo varied, so it cannot always be taken to mean a quick tempo.[4] Using alla breve helps the musician read notes of short duration more cleanly with fewer beats.
Historical usage
[edit]The term alla breve is derived from the system of mensural or proportional notation, in use prior to 1600, in which note values (and their symbols) were related according to the ratios 2:1 or 3:1. Originally it refers to a tactus or metrical pulse (now commonly referred to as the "beat") on the whole note (semibreve) exchanged for that on the double whole note (breve), in contexts when the breve is twice as long as the semibreve (proportio dubla).[4]
| Modern notation | 
|
| White notation (15th–16th centuries) |
|
| Black notation (13th–15th centuries) |
|
Early music notation in the West was developed by members of Christian religious orders, resulting in theological associations between music, its notation, and the terminology used to describe its form. Thus music in triple time was called tempus perfectum, owing to an association with the Holy Trinity and represented by the "perfect" circle, which has no beginning or end.
Music in duple time was conversely called tempus imperfectum, of which the symbol was the broken circle, 
, which is still used – although it has come to mean 4
4, or "common time", today. When cut through by a vertical line "", it means 2
2 – "cut common time," or alla breve.[5]
The use of the vertical line or stroke in a musical graphical symbol, as practiced in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and now referred to by the modern term of "cut time", did not always have the same meaning as alla breve. It sometimes had other functions, including non-mensural ones.[6]
Example
[edit]The following is an example with the same rhythm notated in 2
2 and in 4
4:
 2 followed by the same rhythm notated in 4 4. Note there are more eighth and sixteenth notes in the 4 4 version versus eighth and quarter notes in the 2 2 version, one of the reasons 2 2 is typically easier to read at faster tempos.[7] |
Notes
[edit]- ^ Randel (2003), pp. 33, 241.
- ^ LilyPond – Music Glossary v2.18.2 (http://lilypond.org/doc/v2.18/Documentation/music-glossary/alla-breve)
- ^ Duckworth, William (2009). A Creative Approach to Music Fundamentals, p. 38. ISBN 0-495-57220-9.
- ^ a b Randel (2003), p. 33
- ^ Novello, John (1986). The Contemporary Keyboardist, p. 37. ISBN 0-634-01091-3
- ^ "Cut time" in Sadie (2001).
- ^ Schonbrun, Marc (2005). The Everything Reading Music Book, p. 56. ISBN 1-59337-324-4.
Sources
[edit]- Randel, Don Michael (2003). Harvard dictionary of music, fourth edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01163-5.
- Sadie, Stanley; John Tyrrell, eds. (2001). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edition. New York: Grove's Dictionaries. ISBN 1-56159-239-0.
- Novello, John (1986). The Contemporary Keyboardist, Hal Leonard Corporation, ISBN 0-634-01091-3.
Alla breve
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Etymology and Meaning
Origin of the Term
The Italian phrase alla breve literally translates to "according to the breve" or "in the style of the breve," deriving from the historical use of the breve as a key rhythmic unit in early music notation.[8] In mensural notation of the Renaissance, the breve represented a double whole note, equivalent to two semibreves (modern whole notes) or four minims (half notes), and functioned as the primary beat in certain temporal structures.[9] This note value, originally called "brevis" in Latin to denote its relative shortness compared to even longer notes like the long or maxima, became central to duple mensurations where it divided into two equal parts.[10] The term alla breve first emerged in 16th-century musical treatises, notably in Gioseffo Zarlino's Le Istitutioni Harmoniche (1558), where it described a performance practice or tempo emphasizing the breve as the tactus or beat, often implying a quicker pace relative to tempus perfectum.[11] Earlier roots trace to late 15th-century theorists discussing similar duple divisions, but Zarlino's work formalized its application in polyphonic composition and performance.[12] By the 18th century, alla breve had transitioned from a primarily tempo-based instruction—indicating motion "in the manner of the breve"—to a conventional meter signature denoting 2/2 time, where the half note receives the beat, reflecting broader shifts in notational standardization during the Baroque period.[7] This evolution aligned with the decline of mensural systems and the rise of modern barlines and fixed time signatures in printed music.[10]Relation to Note Values
In mensural notation, prevalent from the 13th to the 16th centuries, the breve served as a fundamental note value, typically equivalent to two semibreves in tempus imperfectum (duple division) or three semibreves in tempus perfectum (triple division), functioning as the primary organizing unit for rhythm and often aligning with the tactus, or principal pulse of the music.[13][14] Historically, the semibreve—equivalent to the modern whole note—subdivided the breve, allowing for intricate polyphonic textures where the breve provided the structural backbone for phrasing and accentuation. In modern notation, the breve corresponds to a double whole note, lasting twice the duration of a whole note (eight quarter-note beats in common time), though its practical use has diminished outside of specific historical transcriptions.[15] The term "alla breve," meaning "according to the breve," directly ties this time signature to the breve's role by designating it as the beat unit, in contrast to standard mensurations where the semibreve or smaller values might define the pulse.[14] This implies a duple meter where two breves form a measure, effectively counting beats on the breve rather than its subdivisions, which accelerates the perceived tempo by emphasizing larger note values as the primary metric pulse. In practice, alla breve notation, often indicated by a slashed circle or similar symbol in mensural scores, interpreted the subdivisions like minims at half their value relative to the tactus, effectively doubling the speed to maintain rhythmic clarity in faster passages.[13] Over time, the application of note values shifted significantly: in Renaissance music, the breve often acted as the beat, with semibreves as subdivisions, whereas modern alla breve (2/2 time) reinterprets this by assigning the half note—historically a minim—as the beat unit, which alters the perceived speed and requires performers to adjust tempos accordingly when transcribing older works. This evolution reflects a broader simplification in notation, where the breve's organizing principle persists abstractly but is scaled to smaller values for contemporary instruments and ensembles. For instance, a breve equals two semibreves in duple mensuration, forming the bar's foundation in alla breve, where the measure encompasses two such breves, prioritizing binary grouping over ternary for a more propulsive feel.[13][14]Notation
Time Signature Symbols
The primary symbol used to indicate alla breve in musical scores is the "cut C" or slashed C (𝄵), which consists of the common time symbol—a semicircle (C)—intersected by a vertical line. This notation visually signifies a duple meter where the half note receives the beat, effectively halving the pulse relative to the undivided common time symbol.[16][17] An alternative and more explicit notation is the fractional time signature 2/2, with the numerator specifying two beats per measure and the denominator indicating the half note as the beat unit. This numeric form is particularly common in pedagogical contexts or when clarity is prioritized over symbolic brevity.[18][16] The cut C symbol traces its origins to mensural notation practices from the 13th to 17th centuries, where it represented "tempus imperfectum diminutum"—a duple subdivision of the breve with halved note values—often depicted as a broken or slashed circle to denote the diminished tempus.[19][16] In modern engraving standards, the cut C and 2/2 notations are supported in professional music notation software, such as Sibelius, where the symbol is accessible via the time signatures menu for precise rendering, and Finale, which displays the slashed C when selected for alla breve meters in printed scores.[20][21]Distinction from Common Time
Alla breve, denoted as 2/2 time, is rhythmically equivalent to common time (4/4) in that both signatures can accommodate the same patterns of notes and rests, such as four quarter notes per measure, but they differ in how beats are grouped and perceived. In common time, the measure is divided into four quarter-note beats, creating a quadruple meter with a typical stress pattern of strong-weak-medium-weak. In contrast, alla breve groups the measure into two half-note beats, emphasizing a duple meter with a simpler strong-weak pulse, which can make the music feel more expansive or march-like.[22][3] The distinction in tempo perception arises from this grouping: alla breve often implies a faster overall execution because the half-note beat is larger and slower than the quarter-note beat in common time, allowing performers to maintain a brisk pace without rushing smaller subdivisions. This reduces visual clutter on the page during rapid passages, as fewer beats need to be counted per measure, aiding readability for musicians in allegro or lively sections. For instance, a piece marked at 160 quarter notes per minute in 4/4 would feel equivalent to 80 half notes per minute in 2/2, shifting the perceived pulse to a more driving duple feel.[22][3] Conducting patterns further highlight the practical differences, affecting ensemble coordination. Common time typically uses a four-beat pattern (down, left, right, up), subdividing the measure into quarters, while alla breve employs a two-beat pattern (down, up), aligning with the half-note pulses for a more streamlined gesture in faster music. This choice influences how performers synchronize, with alla breve promoting a broader, less fragmented rhythmic flow.[22] Composers select alla breve for pieces like marches or allegros to emphasize the primary pulse on half notes, enhancing forward momentum, whereas common time suits music with prominent subdivided rhythms or a need for quarter-note emphasis, such as in dances requiring finer metric divisions. This decision prioritizes both perceptual clarity and interpretive intent without altering the underlying duration of notes.[22][3]Historical Development
In Mensural Notation
Mensural notation emerged in the late 13th century as a system for precisely measuring durations in polyphonic vocal music, spanning roughly from 1260 to 1600. Franco of Cologne's treatise Ars cantus mensurabilis (c. 1260) laid its foundations by defining note values relative to the breve as the fundamental unit of measurement, introducing the distinction between perfect tempus—where the breve divides into three equal semibreves—and imperfect tempus, where it divides into two semibreves in a duple ratio. This imperfect division formed the basis of alla breve, emphasizing a binary rhythmic structure that contrasted with the ternary patterns of earlier modal notation.[23] Philippe de Vitry advanced this framework in his Ars nova (c. 1322), which expanded mensural possibilities by incorporating smaller note values like the minim and systematizing the application of perfection and imperfection across levels of division. In this context, alla breve manifested as tempus imperfectum, allowing composers to notate duple subdivisions of the breve for more fluid polyphonic textures, particularly in isorhythmic motets where rhythmic repetition was key. Vitry's innovations enabled proportional adjustments that aligned with the duple emphasis of alla breve, influencing the rhythmic organization of voices in multi-part compositions.[24] The symbolic representation of these concepts evolved from simple geometric forms: an incomplete or open circle denoted tempus imperfectum to signify the duple division of the breve, while a vertical slash through the circle (often rendered as a cut C or Φ) indicated diminutio, effectively halving the proportional values to accelerate the tempo without altering the notated note lengths. This slashed symbol, rooted in proportional theory, allowed performers to interpret sections in alla breve as twice the speed of standard imperfect time, a practice essential for contrasting faster passages within larger works.[25][26] Johannes de Muris contributed significantly in the 1320s through treatises such as Ars practica musicae and Quatuor principalia musicae, where he detailed proportional notation techniques that facilitated the use of alla breve in motets and masses. Muris explained how numerical proportions or signs could invoke tempus imperfectum diminutum to denote halved durations, enabling composers to create brisk, energetic sections amid slower surrounding movements, as seen in the tenors of isorhythmic motets. His work on proportions bridged theoretical mensuration with practical application, ensuring alla breve's role in enhancing rhythmic variety.[27][28] In this system, the beat hierarchy positioned the breve as the primary tactus in alla breve contexts, with semibreves maintaining a strict 2:1 ratio to it, which supported intricate syncopations and contrapuntal interplay without disrupting the underlying pulse. This duple orientation influenced the rhythmic foundation of polyphonic music, prioritizing clarity and speed in ensemble performance while allowing for the imperfection of larger notes through adjacent semibreves.[23][29]Evolution in Baroque and Classical Periods
During the Baroque period (c. 1600–1750), alla breve transitioned from its mensural roots toward more fixed metrical structures, gaining prominence in both opera and instrumental genres as a marker of duple meter with the half note as the primary pulse. Composers like Claudio Monteverdi employed duple time notations involving the breve in madrigals and early operas, such as in the declamatory sections of Lasciate i monti from his opera L'Orfeo (1607), where the breve signified two beats to support rhythmic flexibility in expressive singing.[30] This usage reflected a shift from proportional relationships to consistent tactus, allowing for clearer articulation in recitative-like passages that mimicked speech rhythms while maintaining moderate tempos.[31] By mid-century, the tempo marking "alla breve" explicitly indicated a pace roughly twice that of common time (4/4), with note values halved in perceived speed to facilitate brisk yet controlled motion, as described by flutist Johann Joachim Quantz in his influential treatise.[32] The style also influenced the French overture form, popularized by Jean-Baptiste Lully and adopted across Europe, where the fast concluding section often employed alla breve with exaggerated dotted rhythms to evoke grandeur and propulsion.[33] In German music, Johann Sebastian Bach frequently notated fugues and organ works in alla breve to enhance contrapuntal clarity, treating the half note as the beat unit to align voices more distinctly without the subdivided pulses of common time; examples include the Fuga alla breve e staccato in his Prelude and Fugue in G major, BWV 550 (c. 1708), where the meter supports intricate imitative entries. This approach preserved a "stile antico" polyphonic texture while adapting to Baroque expressivity, bridging Renaissance proportions with emerging fixed meters.[34] In the Classical period (c. 1750–1820), alla breve became standardized as the 2/2 time signature in symphonic and chamber works, emphasizing duple meter for energetic movements and dance-derived forms. Joseph Haydn routinely used it in finales and allegros, as in the concluding Alla breve of his Symphony No. 3 in G major, Hob. I:3 (c. 1762), to drive forward momentum with clear half-note pulses suited to orchestral scale.[35] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart similarly applied 2/2 for structural emphasis in symphonies, such as the finale (Allegro) of Symphony No. 39 in E-flat major, K. 543 (1788), where the meter reinforced duple phrasing in its sonata-form structure, aligning with the era's preference for balanced, proportional forms over Baroque proportionality.[36] By this time, the signature had fully evolved into a fixed indicator of moderate-to-fast tempos, distinct from common time, facilitating the clarity and symmetry central to Classical style.[37]Usage
Modern Applications
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Romantic composers expanded the use of alla breve to support dramatic pacing in large-scale works. Richard Wagner drew on Beethoven's influence in his analytical writings, incorporating metrical practices from earlier styles in his operas to evoke rhythmic vitality in ceremonial and contrapuntal movements.[38] Gustav Mahler similarly employed cut time notations in his orchestral works to refine tempo and structural flow for performance.[39] These applications allowed for heightened expressivity in expansive forms, aligning the meter's brevity with emotional intensity. By the mid-20th century, Igor Stravinsky integrated alla breve into his neoclassical compositions to blend historical references with modern vitality. In the first movement of his Symphony in C (1940), marked Moderato alla breve, the meter draws on classical models like Haydn's symphonies while emphasizing rhythmic polarity and continuity, characteristic of Stravinsky's neoclassic style.[40] This usage underscores alla breve's role in evoking a streamlined, energetic pulse amid Stravinsky's experimental harmonies. In contemporary performance practice, alla breve conveys a faster tempo feel, with the half note often set at 80–120 BPM to propel music forward without altering the underlying pulse relative to common time.[41] This approach, known as cut time, simplifies conducting and reading by treating the half note as the beat unit, which reduces page turns in virtuosic passages and eases execution of rapid figurations.[42] Alla breve remains prevalent in modern genres for its rhythmic drive. In marches, cut time notation supports the steady, forward-marching pulse, as in parade-style works where it aligns with the half-note beat for ensemble cohesion.[43] It appears in rock music to create a punchy, half-time groove over fast underlying rhythms and in film scores for tense, propulsive sequences, often via 2/2 orchestral reductions that condense notation for efficiency. In educational settings, cut time is taught in band and choral programs to demystify complex 4/4 patterns at higher speeds, fostering better ensemble timing and sight-reading skills.[44]Historical Applications
In the Medieval and Renaissance periods, alla breve emerged as a practical tool in sacred polyphony to delineate contrasting sections, particularly for accelerating rhythmic motion within complex vocal textures. Derived from mensural notation's tempus imperfectum diminutum (often notated as a cut circle, ∅), it placed the tactus on the breve, effectively doubling the pulse speed relative to undiminished mensurations and enabling brisker settings of text. This was especially evident in polyphonic elaborations of Gregorian chant derivatives, such as alleluias, where alla breve facilitated jubilant, florid verses (jubilus) that contrasted with slower introductory phrases, enhancing expressive variety in liturgical music. For instance, late 15th-century theorists like Adam von Fulda endorsed beating the tactus alla breve to synchronize voices in ensemble performance, as seen in the coordinated polyphony of Adrian Willaert's motets, where shifts to alla breve heightened rhetorical emphasis without disrupting overall proportions.[29][11] During the Baroque and Classical eras, alla breve became integral to instrumental genres like suites and sonatas, particularly for allegro movements requiring energetic propulsion. Composers such as George Frideric Handel and Johann Sebastian Bach frequently employed it in sonata forms to evoke dance-like vitality, as in Handel's Trio Sonata in E-flat Major (HWV 382), where the second movement's alla breve notation supports rapid scalar passages and contrapuntal interplay. In performance practice, this meter encouraged conducting in two beats per measure, simplifying coordination for small ensembles and aligning with the era's emphasis on steady tactus for ballroom-derived dances like the gigue or courante in suites. Bach's Trio Sonata in C Major (BWV 1037) exemplifies this, with its alla breve allegro moderato fostering a driving pulse that unified violin, flute, and continuo lines in live settings.[46][47] In the Romantic period, alla breve allowed for nuanced expressive techniques, including tempo rubato, to convey emotional swells within operatic and orchestral contexts. Giuseppe Verdi integrated it into his scores to balance dramatic intensity and rhythmic clarity, enabling performers to apply rubato for heightened pathos without losing momentum. This meter's duple framework supported rubato's "stolen time" by providing a flexible yet anchored pulse.[48] Across these historical applications, alla breve's ensemble effects proved advantageous for strings and winds in fast passages, simplifying notation and reading by reducing perceived beats and emphasizing half-note pulses, which minimized visual clutter in scores and promoted balanced interplay. In Baroque orchestral suites, this streamlined execution for violin sections during allegros, while in Romantic orchestrations, it aided wind integration during rapid figurations, as theorized in 18th- and 19th-century treatises on performance efficiency.[49]Examples
Classical Compositions
In Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 1 in F minor, Op. 2 No. 1, the opening Allegro movement employs a 2/2 time signature, which imparts an energetic drive to the sonata-form structure through its emphasis on half-note beats that highlight recurring motifs, such as the Mannheim rocket in the primary theme. This alla breve notation, common in Beethoven's early works, facilitates a brisk tempo and rhythmic propulsion that underscores the movement's dramatic contrasts between forte staccato and piano legato sections.[50] Johann Sebastian Bach's Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 in G major, BWV 1048, opens with its first movement in alla breve (cut time), lending contrapuntal vitality to the intricate interplay among the three violin, viola, and cello lines in a fugal texture typical of Baroque concertos.[51] The 2/2 meter supports the galloping rhythms and perpetual motion that drive the ensemble's virtuosic exchanges, exemplifying Bach's mastery of polyphonic writing without a soloist dominating the texture.[52] The finale (Molto allegro) of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550, utilizes an alla breve time signature to sustain a presto pace in its sonata form, where the duple grouping of beats aids the thematic development by fragmenting and recombining the energetic primary theme across modulations.[53] This rhythmic framework enhances the movement's breathless urgency, allowing Mozart to build tension through syncopations and chromatic passages while maintaining structural clarity in the exposition and recapitulation.[54]Popular and Contemporary Pieces
In popular and contemporary music, alla breve (2/2 time) provides a driving, emphatic pulse that enhances rhythmic intensity and march-like qualities across genres. Igor Stravinsky's Symphony in C (first movement, 1940) employs "Moderato alla breve," utilizing the neoclassical duple meter to evoke a march-like energy with its clear, propulsive structure and rhythmic insistence in the strings.[55] John Philip Sousa's The Stars and Stripes Forever (1897), while primarily in 2/4, features sections in cut time to accelerate the tempo and heighten the triumphant brass fanfares, demonstrating alla breve's role in American march traditions. Traditional folk tunes like "When Johnny Comes Marching Home" are often notated in 2/2 for brisk ensemble performances, highlighting its duple rhythm in civil war-era adaptations for bands and choral groups.[56] This notation choice demonstrates alla breve's ongoing versatility in blending historical roots with modern performance contexts, such as film scores and rock anthems.References
- https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians/Alla_Breve
- https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians/Breve