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Election of Uthman
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Election of Uthman
The Election of Uthman was the appointment of Uthman ibn Affan as the third caliph by a committee (shura), which was assembled by the dying caliph Umar in 23 AH (643-4 CE). The committee likely consisted of six early Muslims from the Quraysh tribe, including the prophet Muhammad's second cousin and son-in-law Uthman and Muhammad's first cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib. The deciding vote was given to Uthman's Brother-in-law Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, who appointed the former as the next caliph after the deliberations stalled. The choice of the wealthy Uthman is sometimes explained as a intention to guard the interests of the Quraysh and to follow the practices of the first two caliphs, namely, Abu Bakr and Umar. The committee has been criticized for its alleged bias towards Uthman and for its exclusion of the Ansar.
The committee was convened in Medina by the second caliph Umar (r. 634–644) after he was stabbed in 23/644 by Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz, a Persian slave. On his deathbed, Umar tasked the committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves. This committee is also often referred to as a shura or electorate body by Sunni theologians. Early Sunni sources unanimously approve of Umar's committee, though they often regard it as the second-best solution because Umar reputedly did not know whom to appoint directly. For instance, the Sunni al-Tabari (d. 310/923) quotes Umar as saying that he would have designated his advisor Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah or Salim ibn Ma'qil, the mawla of Abu Hudhayfa ibn Utba, both of whom predeceased the second caliph. Elsewhere, Umar would have selected Abu Ubayda, Mu'adh ibn Jabal, or Khalid ibn al-Walld, as reported in al-Imama wa al-siyasa and also by al-Tabari. Mahmoud M. Ayoub (d. 2021) suggests that Umar also did not want to be directly involved with this appointment, fearing dissension afterward. This fear is also noted by Husain M. Jafri (d. 2019).
Umar nominated six men to this committee in most sources, all from the Muhajirun (early Meccan converts). The committee consisted of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law Uthman ibn Affan, Uthman's brother-in-law and Umar's key advisor Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Ibn Awf's cousin Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Ali's cousin Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and Talha ibn Ubaydullah.
A few sources add to this list Sa'id ibn Zayd, a companion of Muhammad, while a report by al-Tabari says Ibn Zayd was excluded because of his kinship with Umar, who reputedly did not want hereditary succession. On the other hand, some sources do not include Sa'd in the committee. Most sources also say that Talha arrived in Medina after the committee had reached its final decision and was absent from the proceedings. Sa'd formally acted as his proxy by some accounts. The Sunni historian Ibn Sa'd (d. 168/784-5) and some other Sunni sources also list Umar's son Abd Allah in the capacity of an advisor to the committee. Alternatively, the Sunni al-Imama wa al-siyasa reports that Hasan ibn Ali served as a witness in the committee.
Jafri believes that Umar did not consult the Muslim community before appointing this committee, while Patricia Crone (d. 2015) says that this matter is unclear in most sources except the Sunni al-Jahiz (d. 869), according to whom Umar chose the committee members with help from early Muslims. Early Sunni sources defend the configuration of the committee, quoting Umar as saying that these were the best or the most entitled to the caliphate or those over whom the community would split.
The aging Uthman was a wealthy merchant from the powerful Banu Umayyad clan of the Quraysh. He nevertheless lacked leadership or military experience, unlike the rest of the committee. Not much is known about him during the reigns of Abu Bakr and Umar, and some have thus found it peculiar that Uthman was nominated. An early convert and Muhammad's son-in-law, Wilferd Madelung and Sean Anthony suggest that Umar nominated Uthman as the only available strong counter-candidate to Ali, the much younger figurehead of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. If Uthman had not been nominated, observes Madelung, the Umayyads would have inevitably supported their distant relative Ali in the committee. While all nominees belonged to the Quraysh, the rest were from obscure clans, unlike Ali and Uthman.
Umar is shown in early Sunni sources as concerned that the disagreements in the committee would split the community, and he reportedly warned Ali, Uthman, and possibly also Ibn Awf about favoring their kin if they are elected. On this basis, Madelung suggests that Umar considered these three as the serious contenders for the caliphate in the committee. Among these three, Madelung suggests that Ibn Awf and Ali were Umar's most and least preferred candidates, respectively. Alternatively, Jafri and Ayoub consider it likely that Umar saw Ali and Uthman as the strongest candidates. Umar also remarked elsewhere about the "foolishness" (du'aba) of Ali, but nevertheless considered him worthy of the caliphate and predicted the nepotism of Uthman. Madelung is confident that this Sunni account is fabricated, which is also what Ayoub suggests.
Some early reports indicate that Umar vocally opposed the combination of the prophethood and the caliphate in the Banu Hashim, and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed, possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor. In this vein, Farhad Daftary believes that Ali was deliberately excluded from any position of importance during the caliphates of Umar and his predecessor, while Anthony regards Ali's disenfranchisement as self-imposed and a sign of his disapproval of the first two caliphs, even though he offered his (at times critical) advice to the caliphs. Considering all this, Jafri suggests that Umar nevertheless included Ali in the committee because of his high political standing, which made it impossible for Umar to exclude Ali. Ayoub extends this attitude of Umar to other government posts, basing his conclusion on a report by al-Mas'udi (d. 956) in which the caliph hesitated to install the Hashemite Ibn Abbas (d. c. 687) as the governor of Homs, saying that Muhammad had not given the Banu Hashim any share in the power.
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Election of Uthman
The Election of Uthman was the appointment of Uthman ibn Affan as the third caliph by a committee (shura), which was assembled by the dying caliph Umar in 23 AH (643-4 CE). The committee likely consisted of six early Muslims from the Quraysh tribe, including the prophet Muhammad's second cousin and son-in-law Uthman and Muhammad's first cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib. The deciding vote was given to Uthman's Brother-in-law Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, who appointed the former as the next caliph after the deliberations stalled. The choice of the wealthy Uthman is sometimes explained as a intention to guard the interests of the Quraysh and to follow the practices of the first two caliphs, namely, Abu Bakr and Umar. The committee has been criticized for its alleged bias towards Uthman and for its exclusion of the Ansar.
The committee was convened in Medina by the second caliph Umar (r. 634–644) after he was stabbed in 23/644 by Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz, a Persian slave. On his deathbed, Umar tasked the committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves. This committee is also often referred to as a shura or electorate body by Sunni theologians. Early Sunni sources unanimously approve of Umar's committee, though they often regard it as the second-best solution because Umar reputedly did not know whom to appoint directly. For instance, the Sunni al-Tabari (d. 310/923) quotes Umar as saying that he would have designated his advisor Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah or Salim ibn Ma'qil, the mawla of Abu Hudhayfa ibn Utba, both of whom predeceased the second caliph. Elsewhere, Umar would have selected Abu Ubayda, Mu'adh ibn Jabal, or Khalid ibn al-Walld, as reported in al-Imama wa al-siyasa and also by al-Tabari. Mahmoud M. Ayoub (d. 2021) suggests that Umar also did not want to be directly involved with this appointment, fearing dissension afterward. This fear is also noted by Husain M. Jafri (d. 2019).
Umar nominated six men to this committee in most sources, all from the Muhajirun (early Meccan converts). The committee consisted of Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's son-in-law Uthman ibn Affan, Uthman's brother-in-law and Umar's key advisor Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, Ibn Awf's cousin Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Ali's cousin Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and Talha ibn Ubaydullah.
A few sources add to this list Sa'id ibn Zayd, a companion of Muhammad, while a report by al-Tabari says Ibn Zayd was excluded because of his kinship with Umar, who reputedly did not want hereditary succession. On the other hand, some sources do not include Sa'd in the committee. Most sources also say that Talha arrived in Medina after the committee had reached its final decision and was absent from the proceedings. Sa'd formally acted as his proxy by some accounts. The Sunni historian Ibn Sa'd (d. 168/784-5) and some other Sunni sources also list Umar's son Abd Allah in the capacity of an advisor to the committee. Alternatively, the Sunni al-Imama wa al-siyasa reports that Hasan ibn Ali served as a witness in the committee.
Jafri believes that Umar did not consult the Muslim community before appointing this committee, while Patricia Crone (d. 2015) says that this matter is unclear in most sources except the Sunni al-Jahiz (d. 869), according to whom Umar chose the committee members with help from early Muslims. Early Sunni sources defend the configuration of the committee, quoting Umar as saying that these were the best or the most entitled to the caliphate or those over whom the community would split.
The aging Uthman was a wealthy merchant from the powerful Banu Umayyad clan of the Quraysh. He nevertheless lacked leadership or military experience, unlike the rest of the committee. Not much is known about him during the reigns of Abu Bakr and Umar, and some have thus found it peculiar that Uthman was nominated. An early convert and Muhammad's son-in-law, Wilferd Madelung and Sean Anthony suggest that Umar nominated Uthman as the only available strong counter-candidate to Ali, the much younger figurehead of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. If Uthman had not been nominated, observes Madelung, the Umayyads would have inevitably supported their distant relative Ali in the committee. While all nominees belonged to the Quraysh, the rest were from obscure clans, unlike Ali and Uthman.
Umar is shown in early Sunni sources as concerned that the disagreements in the committee would split the community, and he reportedly warned Ali, Uthman, and possibly also Ibn Awf about favoring their kin if they are elected. On this basis, Madelung suggests that Umar considered these three as the serious contenders for the caliphate in the committee. Among these three, Madelung suggests that Ibn Awf and Ali were Umar's most and least preferred candidates, respectively. Alternatively, Jafri and Ayoub consider it likely that Umar saw Ali and Uthman as the strongest candidates. Umar also remarked elsewhere about the "foolishness" (du'aba) of Ali, but nevertheless considered him worthy of the caliphate and predicted the nepotism of Uthman. Madelung is confident that this Sunni account is fabricated, which is also what Ayoub suggests.
Some early reports indicate that Umar vocally opposed the combination of the prophethood and the caliphate in the Banu Hashim, and he thus prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed, possibly fearing that he might expressly designate Ali as his successor. In this vein, Farhad Daftary believes that Ali was deliberately excluded from any position of importance during the caliphates of Umar and his predecessor, while Anthony regards Ali's disenfranchisement as self-imposed and a sign of his disapproval of the first two caliphs, even though he offered his (at times critical) advice to the caliphs. Considering all this, Jafri suggests that Umar nevertheless included Ali in the committee because of his high political standing, which made it impossible for Umar to exclude Ali. Ayoub extends this attitude of Umar to other government posts, basing his conclusion on a report by al-Mas'udi (d. 956) in which the caliph hesitated to install the Hashemite Ibn Abbas (d. c. 687) as the governor of Homs, saying that Muhammad had not given the Banu Hashim any share in the power.
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