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Georges Claude (24 September 1870 – 23 May 1960) was a French engineer and inventor. He is noted for his early work on the industrial liquefaction of air, for the invention and commercialization of neon lighting, and for a large experiment on generating energy by pumping cold seawater up from the depths.[2] He has been considered by some to be "the Edison of France".[3][4] The Claude process for manufacturing ammonia was named for him.

Key Information

Claude was an active collaborator with the German occupiers of France during the Second World War, for which he was imprisoned in 1945 and stripped of his honors.[2][3][5]

Early life and career

[edit]

Georges Claude was born on 24 September 1870 in Paris, France, during the city's siege by German forces.[2]

Georges Claude studied at the École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris (ESPCI).[6] He then held several positions. He was an electrical inspector in a cable factory and the laboratory manager in an electric works. He founded and edited a magazine, L'Étincelle Électrique (The Electric Spark); his important friendship with Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval apparently dates from this time.[7] About 1896, Claude learned of the explosion risk for bottled acetylene, which was used at the time for lighting. Acetylene is explosive when stored under pressure. Claude showed that acetylene dissolved well in acetone, equivalent to storing it under 25 atmospheres of pressure, reduced the risk in handling the gas.[8]

Liquefaction of air

[edit]

In 1902 Claude devised what is now known as the Claude system for liquefying air.[9] The system enabled the production of industrial quantities of liquid nitrogen, oxygen, and argon; Claude's approach competed successfully with the earlier system of Carl von Linde (1895).[10] Claude and businessman Paul Delorme founded Air Liquide (L'Air Liquide), which is presently a large multinational corporation headquartered in Paris, France.

Neon lighting

[edit]
Main article: Neon lighting
Photograph of glass tube that's been bent to form the connected letters "Ne". The tube is glowing brightly with a red color.
Gas discharge tube containing neon; "Ne" is the chemical symbol for neon.

Inspired by Geissler tubes and by Daniel McFarlan Moore's invention of a nitrogen-based light (the "Moore tube"), Claude developed neon tube lighting to exploit the neon that was produced as a byproduct of his air liquefaction business.[11] These were all "glow discharge" tubes that generate light when an electric current is passed through the rarefied gas within the tube. Claude's first public demonstration of a large neon light was at the Paris Motor Show (Salon de l'Automobile et du Cycle), 3–18 December 1910.[12][13] Claude's first patent filing for his technologies in France was on 7 March 1910.[14] Claude himself wrote in 1913 that, in addition to a source of neon gas, there were two principal inventions that made neon lighting practicable. First were his methods for purifying the neon (or other inert gases such as argon). Claude developed techniques for purifying the inert gases within a completely sealed glass tube, which distinguished neon tube lighting from the Moore tubes; the latter had a device for replenishing the nitrogen or carbon dioxide gases within the tube. The second invention was ultimately crucial for the development of the Claude lighting business; it was a design for minimizing the degradation (by "sputtering") of the electrodes that transfer electric current from the external power supply to the glowing gases within the sign.[11]

The terms "neon light" and "neon sign" are now often applied to electrical lighting incorporating sealed glass tubes filled with argon, mercury vapor, or other gases, in addition to neon. In 1915 a U.S. patent was issued to Claude covering the design of the electrodes for neon lights;[15] this patent became the strongest basis for the monopoly held in the U.S. by his company, Claude Neon Lights, through the early 1930s.[16]

Georges Claude and the French company he founded have long been said to have introduced neon signs to the United States by selling two to Earle C. Anthony, the owner of Packard car dealerships in San Francisco and Los Angeles (in 1923) but no conclusive evidence of this has ever been uncovered. Instead, photographs from 1923 to 1925 reveal a neon sign in Los Angeles, but not until 1925. A photograph of Anthony's San Francisco dealership may show a neon Packard sign in 1924 but is not conclusive.[17] However, by 1924 Claude's company (Claude Neon) had opened subsidiaries or licensed patents to affiliated companies across the U.S. (such as Electrical Products Corporation, on the U.S. West Coast) and, though neon signage caught on only slowly, by the 1930s it was common across the U.S., eventually becoming, for a few decades, the country's dominant form of lit signage.[18]

Ocean thermal energy conversion

[edit]
Georges Claude conducting a demonstration on ocean thermal energy conversion at the Institut de France in 1926.
Main article: Ocean thermal energy conversion

Claude's mentor and friend was Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval, the inventor of the "Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion" (OTEC) concept. Claude was also the first person to build prototype plants of that technology. Claude built his plant in Cuba in 1930. The system produced 22 kilowatts of electricity with a low-pressure turbine.[4][19]

In 1935, Claude constructed another plant, this time aboard a 10,000-ton cargo vessel moored off the coast of Brazil. Weather and waves destroyed both plants before they could become net power generators.[19] (Net power is the amount of power generated after subtracting power needed to run the system.)

Wartime collaboration and post-war imprisonment

[edit]

Even as a young engineer, Claude was unsympathetic to democratic rule.[7] In 1933 he joined the Action Française, which favored restoration of a monarchy in France.[5] He was a close friend of the monarchist leader Charles Maurras.[3] Following the 1940 defeat of France by Germany at the beginning of the Second World War, the subsequent German occupation of northern France and establishment of the Vichy regime in the south, Claude publicly supported French collaboration with Germany. Among his other activities, he published several tracts supporting collaboration.[20][21][22] He was a member of a Distinguished Committee of the Groupe Collaboration, which had been founded in September 1940. He was nominated by the Vichy regime as a member of the Conseil National Consultatif in 1941.

Following the Allied liberation of France in 1944, Claude was taken into custody on 2 December 1944 because of his collaboration with the Axis powers. He was removed from the French Academy of Sciences. In 1945 he was tried and convicted of propaganda work favoring collaboration, but was cleared of another charge that he helped design the V-1 flying bomb. He was condemned to life imprisonment, and was imprisoned. In 1950 he was released from prison, with acknowledgment of his research on ocean thermal energy conversion.[2]

Selected bibliography

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Georges Claude

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from Grokipedia
Georges Claude (24 September 1870 – 23 May 1960) was a French engineer, chemist, and inventor best known for developing industrial-scale air processes and pioneering tube lighting. His innovations enabled the commercial separation and production of atmospheric gases like oxygen and , while his displays revolutionized advertising and illumination technologies. Claude's work extended to experimental energy projects, though his legacy includes post-World War II condemnation for active collaboration with German occupiers. Claude's breakthrough in air involved refining thermodynamic cycles to achieve efficient cooling and of gases under pressure, incorporating expansion turbines to recover work and boost overall viability. This method, operational by the early 1900s, supported industries reliant on pure oxygen for , , and . Building on his gas handling expertise, he electrified sealed neon-filled tubes, demonstrating the first practical lamps in December 1910 at the , where the vivid red glow captivated audiences and foreshadowed global adoption in by the .
Beyond these core contributions, Claude pursued ambitious ventures like harnessing ocean thermal gradients for power generation in the 1920s and , though such efforts yielded limited commercial success. In the , he publicly advocated French alignment with , and during the occupation, he engaged in collaborationist activities, leading to his 1945 arrest, conviction, imprisonment, and stripping of honors by French authorities after liberation.

Early Life and Background

Birth, Family, and Education

Georges Claude was born on September 24, 1870, in , , into a family of modest means. His father held the position of assistant director at the Manufactures des Glaces de , a leading French enterprise in glass production, which exposed Claude to industrial processes involving from an early age. Details on Claude's remain sparse in historical records, with no verified accounts of siblings or maternal influences directly shaping his path. The urban industrial environment of late 19th-century , amid France's post-Napoleonic recovery and technological expansion, likely fostered his pragmatic orientation toward empirical experimentation rather than theoretical abstraction. Claude pursued formal education at the École Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de (ESPCI ), an institution established in 1882 to train engineers in applied sciences. There, he focused on practical chemistry and physics, emphasizing techniques for industrial-scale manipulation of gases and materials. He graduated in 1886 at age 16, having acquired skills in laboratory methods and that prioritized measurable outcomes over speculative inquiry. This training grounded his subsequent work in verifiable physical principles, distinguishing his approach from more abstract academic pursuits of the era.

Initial Professional Experiences

Following his graduation from the École Supérieure de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de in 1889, Claude entered the sector, initially working at the Paris municipal electricity works, where he survived a near-fatal high-tension wire accident that led to enhanced safety measures in the industry. In the 1890s, he joined the Compagnie Française Thomson-Houston, an affiliate of the American Thomson-Houston Electric Company, where he conducted empirical experiments in chemicals and gas handling amid the burgeoning field of electrical applications. From 1896 to 1902, while employed at the Compagnie Française Houston-Thomson (a variant designation for his firm), Claude targeted challenges in gas management, recognizing its potential for industrial and lighting despite its volatility. In 1897, he devised a process to dissolve in acetone under pressure, stabilizing the gas for safe storage and transport in cylinders without risk of explosive dissociation, a method that achieved broad industrial acceptance and facilitated scalable production. This innovation stemmed from direct testing of solvents, with acetone proving optimal for absorbing up to 300 volumes of gas per volume of liquid, thereby enabling reliable distribution for oxyacetylene torches following Henry Le Chatelier's 1895 identification of the gas mixture's superior flame temperature. By the early 1900s, Claude shifted toward entrepreneurial ventures, co-founding Société l'Air Liquide in November 1902 alongside investors Paul Delorme and Frédéric Gallier, who provided initial capital of 100,000 French francs to commercialize his liquefaction techniques. The firm focused initially on producing and supplying liquefied for cutting and welding applications, establishing Claude's foundation in enterprises through process-oriented engineering that prioritized efficiency and hazard mitigation.

Major Inventions and Industrial Contributions

Industrial Liquefaction of Air

Georges Claude developed an efficient industrial for in 1902, utilizing a combined with expansion turbines to achieve separation of , , and rare gases. The improved upon Carl von Linde's earlier method by incorporating an expansion engine for isentropic expansion of a portion of the , which produced mechanical work to offset compression energy while enhancing cooling beyond the Joule-Thomson effect alone. This allowed operation at lower pressures and higher yields, with Claude demonstrating the on May 26, 1902, yielding 25 pounds of per hour. In the fall of 1902, Claude partnered with Paul Delorme to found L'Air Liquide as a with initial capital of 100,000 francs, later increased to 500,000 francs by 1904, to commercialize the process. The first production plant opened in June 1903 at Boulogne-sur-Seine, and by 1904, machines achieved outputs of 5-20 cubic meters of oxygen and up to 400 cubic meters of per hour at 99.7% purity. These advancements enabled large-scale separation, dramatically reducing production costs compared to prior chemical methods and scaling operations across . The process supported key industrial applications, including medical oxygen for respiration, oxy-acetylene welding, and oxygen enrichment in metallurgy, fostering demand growth. By the , had become Europe's dominant producer, with efficiency gains from Claude's refinements—such as mechanical work recuperation—lowering energy requirements and enabling indirect contributions to Allied efforts in through reliable oxygen supplies for industrial and medical uses. Company assets expanded from 23 million francs in 1913 to over 500 million by 1930, reflecting the economic viability of Claude's innovations.

Development of Neon Lighting

Georges Claude first publicly demonstrated on December 11, 1910, at the , where he displayed large glass tubes filled with low-pressure gas excited by high-voltage electrical discharge to produce a vivid red glow. This built upon earlier experiments from the but achieved industrial scalability by leveraging Claude's air liquefaction process to extract as a byproduct, enabling consistent gas purity and supply at pressures around 1-10 . The discharge mechanism involved ionizing the neon atoms with voltages of 10-15 kV to initiate the glow, followed by sustained operation at lower voltage, offering a filament-free design that avoided burnout issues plaguing incandescent bulbs. In , Claude patented improvements to corrosion-resistant electrodes, facilitating practical tubing bending for , and established Claude Néon to commercialize the technology through exclusive franchises requiring upfront fees and royalties. By 1923, the company exported signs to the , selling two units to a dealership in for $24,000—equivalent to over $400,000 in modern terms—marking the first U.S. installations and sparking rapid adoption amid the boom. Franchises proliferated, with U.S. rights fetching around $100,000 plus ongoing royalties, generating substantial revenue for Claude Néon despite high fabrication costs from skilled and custom gas filling. Neon tubes demonstrated longevity exceeding 10,000-20,000 hours in commercial use, surpassing incandescent lamps' typical 1,000-hour lifespan due to the absence of fragile filaments, though initial energy consumption was higher at 20-50 watts per foot versus incandescents' efficiency in lumens per watt. Critics noted elevated upfront expenses and power draw relative to emerging alternatives, yet verifiable field data confirmed superior weather resistance and visibility in outdoor signage, driving market dominance in urban displays through the decade.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Georges Claude conceived (OTEC) in the as a method to harness the temperature differential between warm surface ocean water, typically around 25–30°C in tropical regions, and colder deep water at depths of 500–1000 meters, often 4–10°C cooler, to evaporate and drive a low-pressure for . This open-cycle approach relied on flashing warm into under , with cold deep water serving as the condenser, eliminating the need for an external but introducing complexities in pipe deployment and maintenance. Claude's drew from thermodynamic principles akin to his air work, aiming for a baseload renewable source independent of weather or fuel, though causal limitations arose from the inherently small ΔT of 15–20°C, capping theoretical Carnot efficiency at 5–7%. In 1930, Claude erected the world's first OTEC pilot facility in Matanzas Bay, , a land-based open-cycle with a 22 kW gross electrical output derived from . The system utilized a 1.7-mile-long cold-water pipe submerged to access deeper strata, pumping approximately 10,000 gallons per minute to condense exhaust steam, but operations lasted only about 11 days due to mechanical failures in pipe laying and initial power generation barely exceeding pumping demands. Empirical tests revealed net efficiency below 3%, as parasitic losses from pumping—requiring significant to lift dense, cold water against resistance—eroded output, with the 's struggling against air leaks and from saline vapors. The Cuban plant's viability was undermined by biofouling, where marine organisms rapidly colonized intake pipes, reducing flow rates by up to 50% within weeks and necessitating frequent cleaning that halted production; combined with high upfront costs exceeding $100,000 (equivalent to millions today) for minimal scalable yield, the facility was abandoned by the mid-1930s amid unresolved scalability issues. Claude's overreliance on idealized models overlooked these causal realities—such as turbulent currents dislodging pipes and the exponential drag from organic buildup—yielding no commercial replication despite the pioneering validation of thermal gradient potential as a renewable vector. Subsequent attempts, like a 1934 floating platform off , similarly faltered on pipe stability, underscoring OTEC's engineering primacy over theoretical promise in Claude's era.

Other Technical Innovations

In 1917, Georges Claude developed a high-pressure process for the industrial synthesis of from and , operating at pressures up to 1000 atmospheres to achieve yields exceeding 40 percent, surpassing the efficiencies of contemporaneous methods at lower pressures. This approach, known as the Claude process, paralleled but differed from the Haber-Bosch method by emphasizing extreme compression to enhance reaction kinetics and equilibrium, enabling cost-effective production for fertilizers and explosives without relying on imported nitrates. Claude's independent experimentation, detailed in his 1917 publications, demonstrated practical scalability, with pilot plants producing at reduced energy costs compared to atmospheric-pressure alternatives. Claude also secured patents for advancements in gas handling and storage systems, including high-pressure vessels and safety mechanisms for compressed industrial gases like , which supported applications in chemical manufacturing and emerging technologies. These innovations stemmed from his empirical testing of stresses under extreme conditions, improving reliability for large-scale hydrogen generation via electrolysis-integrated setups. While not as transformative as his work, they facilitated safer distribution of reactive gases in early 20th-century industry.

Involvement in World War II and Aftermath

Advocacy for Vichy Collaboration

Following the Fall of in June 1940 and the establishment of the regime under Marshal Philippe Pétain, Georges Claude emerged as a vocal public advocate for pragmatic French-German collaboration, positioning as the de facto legitimate authority in the unoccupied zone amid the absence of viable Allied alternatives until the in 1944. He began propagating these views from November 1, 1940, through articles, speeches, and organizational involvement, framing cooperation not as subservience but as a means to safeguard French sovereignty and economic viability against total defeat. As an industrialist with stakes in gas production, Claude emphasized preserving national infrastructure and output to avoid economic collapse, prioritizing over ideological purity or resistance fantasies that risked annihilation. Claude's advocacy intensified via affiliation with the Groupe Collaboration, an elite pro-German, anti-Bolshevik network of upper-class figures formed in , where he served on the honorary committee and scientific relations subcommittee, delivering addresses that extolled mutual understanding as the basis for postwar —"La collaboration a pour base la compréhension, et pour but, la paix." In his 1943 lecture tour, titled "Frenchmen, We must understand!" and presented across 51 towns, he explicitly called for French alignment with German victory to foster enduring partnership, aligning with Vichy's Montoire of October 1940 while countering perceived threats from Anglo-Saxon and Bolshevik dominance in a potential Axis defeat. These efforts underscored a vision of regenerated within a German-led "new ," driven by what later characterized as "political passion" rather than profit or doctrinal fanaticism. To underscore his sincerity, Claude staged a failed suicide attempt by poison on December 19, 1942, appending a note beseeching Adolf Hitler to interpret the act as "confidence in a France regenerated" aiding European reconstruction, a gesture trial records portrayed as emblematic of fervent yet non-pecuniary commitment to collaboration as national salvation. Contemporaneous supporters hailed this stance as astute avoidance of ruinous confrontation, preserving industrial capacity like oxygen and acetylene output essential for French recovery; detractors, often from postwar Gaullist or resistant circles, branded it ideological capitulation, though archival assessments reveal scant proof of personal Nazi zealotry beyond pragmatic patriotism. Claude's rhetoric consistently subordinated ideology to causal imperatives of survival, rejecting both unqualified resistance and unthinking enmity in favor of negotiated coexistence.

Technical Support and Wartime Activities

During the German occupation of France from 1940 to 1944, Georges Claude oversaw the continued operation of L'Air Liquide's facilities, which produced industrial gases under German administrative oversight to sustain essential wartime industrial activities. These operations included the of air to yield oxygen and other gases, leveraging Claude's pre-war innovations in cryogenic separation processes established since 1902. The company's plants, such as those in the region and provincial sites, maintained output critical for French , , and chemical , preventing total industrial halt that could have exacerbated economic disruption amid resource shortages. Liquid oxygen production, a core output, supported explosive manufacturing and potentially rocket propulsion, drawing on Claude's expertise in high-volume gas separation. Accusations surfaced post-war that Claude's firm supplied for German V-1 and V-2 weapons programs, but Claude denied involvement, and these specific charges were withdrawn prior to his trial, with no conclusive evidence presented in court records. V-2 rockets required as an oxidizer, mixed with , yet 's documented role appears confined to general industrial supply chains rather than direct weapon fabrication, as German forces controlled occupied facilities and requisitioned outputs for the . Chlorine production also persisted at plants, building on Claude's World War I-era methods for liquefying the gas, which had enabled French counter-responses to German chemical attacks. During , output included liquid chlorine that could theoretically support agents, though refrained from large-scale gas deployment after 1939 due to retaliatory fears and strategic shifts. Production volumes remained geared toward industrial and disinfection needs, with excess potentially diverted under occupation; precise wartime figures are scarce, but pre-occupation capacity exceeded thousands of tons annually across European plants. These dual-use gases underscored the neutral technological base—pre-dating the conflict—yet enabled Allied and Axis applications alike, as sabotage risks or full seizure by occupiers threatened operational continuity for non-military French sectors.

Post-War Trial and Imprisonment

Following the Allied in August 1944, Georges Claude was arrested on charges of treason for his collaboration with German authorities, including alleged assistance in developing technology. He was accused of providing intelligence to the enemy and promoting collaborationist propaganda through affiliations such as the Groupe Collaboration. In June 1945, the Court of Justice convicted Claude of intelligence with the enemy under the épuration () proceedings targeting collaborators. At age 75, he received a sentence, alongside deprivation of civil rights. The court also stripped him of state honors, including membership in the and the Légion d'honneur, reflecting the era's policy of national unworthiness sanctions against prominent industrial figures. Claude served approximately four years in before his release in 1949, facilitated by petitions citing his advanced age and health decline, though he remained under . His personal assets faced partial sequestration as part of collaboration penalties, yet Société l'Air Liquide, the firm he co-founded, persisted under restructured management, compelled only to divest foreign holdings like U.S. subsidiaries to offset national war debts rather than full dissolution. This outcome aligned with patterns in the épuration, where over 160,000 cases processed by military and civilian courts resulted in varied penalties, with many industrialists receiving amnesties or reduced terms by the late amid economic reconstruction needs.

Legacy and Assessments

Scientific and Economic Impact

Claude's innovations in air liquefaction, beginning with processes patented around , enabled the efficient separation and industrial-scale production of oxygen, nitrogen, and other gases, forming the basis for applications in , , and later essential to fabrication. The Société l'Air Liquide, established by Claude and Paul Delorme in to commercialize these methods, grew into a multinational enterprise by the , with facilities across and sales driven by demand for industrial gases in steel production and chemical processes, bolstering France's pre-World War II industrial capacity. Claude's development of tube lighting, patented in in 1910 and demonstrated publicly that year at the , revolutionized outdoor advertising by providing durable, vibrant illumination superior to incandescent bulbs. In the United States, where signs debuted in 1923, the industry expanded rapidly; by 1929, total market sales reached $11 million, with Claude's affiliated company achieving $9 million in revenue—a 40% year-over-year increase—amid a challenging economic climate. This technology influenced standards for gas-discharge lighting, with Claude securing U.S. No. 1,125,476 for luminescent tubes and No. 1,189,664 for specifically, fostering widespread adoption in and early displays. Claude's early work on (OTEC), including a 22 kW prototype operational in , , from 1930 to 1933, validated the use of ocean temperature gradients for power generation despite technical hurdles like . These efforts, building on principles from his mentor Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval, inspired post-1970s amid oil crises, contributing to modern OTEC prototypes and studies on renewable baseload energy from tropical waters. Overall, Claude's portfolio of patents—spanning , , and energy systems—totaled dozens, establishing benchmarks for gas separation and vacuum techniques that persist in industrial standards.

Controversies and Historical Reappraisals

Claude's public advocacy for with , including his membership in the Groupe Collaboration founded in September 1940 and authorship of pro-collaboration tracts, has been central to debates over his moral legacy. Mainstream historical accounts, often shaped by Gaullist narratives and leftist critiques prevalent in French academia, condemn such stances as opportunistic alignment with occupation authorities, implying ideological sympathy for over resistance. Counterperspectives, drawing from analyses of widespread accommodation in occupied , argue Claude's positions reflected pragmatic survival strategies amid total defeat, with no documented involvement in deportations, executions, or other atrocities—distinguishing him from more egregious collaborators. This divide highlights systemic biases in post-war , where leftist institutions amplified moral condemnations while downplaying contextual pressures like and threats that drove passive among elites. Reappraisals since the 1950s have increasingly decoupled Claude's technical innovations from his wartime politics, prioritizing empirical contributions amid declining emphasis on purges. His 1976 induction into the for neon tube commercialization—despite explicit acknowledgment of support and 1945–1949 imprisonment—exemplifies this shift, focusing on verifiable industrial impacts like enabling widespread by 1923. Similarly, assessments of his (OTEC) efforts, while critiquing them as a "magnificent failure" due to insurmountable and pipe deployment issues in 1930 trials yielding only 22 kW intermittently, credit foundational experimentation that informed later closed-cycle designs without wartime opportunism tainting the evaluation. These views underscore causal realism: Claude's opportunism in collaboration mirrored self-preservation under duress, but his pre- and post-war engineering—air liquefaction scaling to industrial tons daily by 1902—sustains a legacy resilient to politicized erasure.

References

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  5. https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2015/12/neon-lights
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  9. https://www.madehow.com/inventorbios/80/Georges-Claude.html
  10. https://www.company-histories.com/LAir-Liquide-SA-Company-History.html
  11. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Georges-Claude
  12. https://www.ebhsoc.org/journal/index.php/ebhs/article/download/296/276/587
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  14. https://www.wired.com/2012/12/dec-11-1910-neon-lights-the-city-of-light/
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