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Khosrow II
Khosrow II (spelled Chosroes II in classical sources; Middle Persian: 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩, romanized: Xusrōγ/Xusrōw and Khosrau), commonly known as Khosrow Parviz (New Persian خسرو پرویز, "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great monarch of pre-Islamic Iran, ruling the Sasanian Empire from 590 to 628, including an interruption of one year.
Khosrow II was the son of Hormizd IV (reigned 579–590), and the grandson of Khosrow I (reigned 531–579). He was the last emperor of Iran to have a lengthy reign before the Muslim conquest of Iran, which began five years after his execution. He lost his throne, then regained it with the help of the Eastern Roman emperor Maurice, and, a decade later, went on to emulate the feats of the Achaemenids, conquering the rich Roman provinces of the Middle East; much of his reign was spent in wars with the Eastern Roman Empire and struggling against usurpers such as Bahram Chobin and Vistahm.
Khosrow II began a war against the Eastern Roman Empire in 602, ostensibly to avenge the murder of his ally, Maurice. Persian forces captured much of the Roman territory, earning Khosrow II the epithet "the Victorious". The Siege of Constantinople (626) was unsuccessful, and Heraclius, now allied with Turks, started a risky but successful counterattack deep into the Persian heartland. Dissatisfied with the war, the empire's feudal families supported a coup in which Khosrow II was deposed and killed by his estranged son Sheroe, who took power as Kavad II. This led to a civil war and interregnum in the empire and the reversal of all Sasanian gains in the war against the Romans.
In works of Persian literature such as Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and Nizami Ganjavi's (1141–1209) Khosrow and Shirin, a famous tragic romance and a highly elaborated fictional version of Khosrow's life made him one of the greatest heroes of the culture, as much a lover as a monarch. Khosrow and Shirin tells the story of his love for the originally Aramean princess Shirin, who becomes his queen after a lengthy courtship strewn with mishaps and difficulties.
Khosrow is the New Persian variant of his name used by scholars; in Middle Persian, his name is Husraw, which derives from Avestan Haosrauuah ("he who has good fame"). The name is rendered in Greek as Chosroes (Χοσρόης) and in Arabic as Kisra. He was given the epithet Abarwēz (New Persian Parwēz / Parviz), meaning "victorious." His name in combination with the epithet Abarwēz is attested in Georgian as K‛asre Ambarvez (Juansher Juansheriani, writing around the year 800) and in Armenian as Aprouēz Xosrov.
Khosrow II was born in c. 570; he was the son of Hormizd IV and an unnamed noblewoman from the House of Ispahbudhan, one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran. Her brothers, Vinduyih and Vistahm, were to have a profound influence on Khosrow II's early life. Khosrow's paternal grandfather was the famed emperor Khosrow I (r. 531–579), whilst his paternal grandmother was the daughter of the khagan of the Khazars. Khosrow is first mentioned in the 580s, when he was at Partaw, the capital of Caucasian Albania. During his stay there, he served as its governor and managed to end the Kingdom of Iberia and turn it into a Sasanian province. Furthermore, Khosrow II also served as the governor of Arbela in Upper Mesopotamia sometime before his accession to the throne.
In 590, Hormizd IV had his prominent general Bahram Chobin disgraced and dismissed. Bahram, infuriated by Hormizd's actions, responded by rebelling, and due to his noble status and great military knowledge, was joined by his soldiers and many others. He then appointed a new governor for Khorasan, and afterwards set out for the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. The legitimacy of the House of Sasan was based on acceptance that the halo of kingship, the farr, was given to the first Sasanian emperor, Ardashir I (r. 224–242) and his family following the latter's conquest of the Parthian Empire. This was now, however, disputed by Bahram Chobin, thus marking the first time in Sasanian history that a Parthian dynast challenged the legitimacy of the Sasanian family by rebelling.
Meanwhile, Hormizd tried to come to terms with his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih, who, according to the Syriac language writer Joshua the Stylite, both "equally hated Hormizd". The two brothers overthrew Hormizd in a seemingly bloodless palace revolution. They had Hormizd blinded with a red-hot needle, and put Khosrow II on the throne. Sometime in the summer of 590, the two brothers then had Hormizd killed, with at least the implicit approval of Khosrow II. Nevertheless, Bahram Chobin continued his march to Ctesiphon, now with the pretext of claiming to avenge Hormizd.
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Khosrow II
Khosrow II (spelled Chosroes II in classical sources; Middle Persian: 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩, romanized: Xusrōγ/Xusrōw and Khosrau), commonly known as Khosrow Parviz (New Persian خسرو پرویز, "Khosrow the Victorious"), is considered to be the last great monarch of pre-Islamic Iran, ruling the Sasanian Empire from 590 to 628, including an interruption of one year.
Khosrow II was the son of Hormizd IV (reigned 579–590), and the grandson of Khosrow I (reigned 531–579). He was the last emperor of Iran to have a lengthy reign before the Muslim conquest of Iran, which began five years after his execution. He lost his throne, then regained it with the help of the Eastern Roman emperor Maurice, and, a decade later, went on to emulate the feats of the Achaemenids, conquering the rich Roman provinces of the Middle East; much of his reign was spent in wars with the Eastern Roman Empire and struggling against usurpers such as Bahram Chobin and Vistahm.
Khosrow II began a war against the Eastern Roman Empire in 602, ostensibly to avenge the murder of his ally, Maurice. Persian forces captured much of the Roman territory, earning Khosrow II the epithet "the Victorious". The Siege of Constantinople (626) was unsuccessful, and Heraclius, now allied with Turks, started a risky but successful counterattack deep into the Persian heartland. Dissatisfied with the war, the empire's feudal families supported a coup in which Khosrow II was deposed and killed by his estranged son Sheroe, who took power as Kavad II. This led to a civil war and interregnum in the empire and the reversal of all Sasanian gains in the war against the Romans.
In works of Persian literature such as Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and Nizami Ganjavi's (1141–1209) Khosrow and Shirin, a famous tragic romance and a highly elaborated fictional version of Khosrow's life made him one of the greatest heroes of the culture, as much a lover as a monarch. Khosrow and Shirin tells the story of his love for the originally Aramean princess Shirin, who becomes his queen after a lengthy courtship strewn with mishaps and difficulties.
Khosrow is the New Persian variant of his name used by scholars; in Middle Persian, his name is Husraw, which derives from Avestan Haosrauuah ("he who has good fame"). The name is rendered in Greek as Chosroes (Χοσρόης) and in Arabic as Kisra. He was given the epithet Abarwēz (New Persian Parwēz / Parviz), meaning "victorious." His name in combination with the epithet Abarwēz is attested in Georgian as K‛asre Ambarvez (Juansher Juansheriani, writing around the year 800) and in Armenian as Aprouēz Xosrov.
Khosrow II was born in c. 570; he was the son of Hormizd IV and an unnamed noblewoman from the House of Ispahbudhan, one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran. Her brothers, Vinduyih and Vistahm, were to have a profound influence on Khosrow II's early life. Khosrow's paternal grandfather was the famed emperor Khosrow I (r. 531–579), whilst his paternal grandmother was the daughter of the khagan of the Khazars. Khosrow is first mentioned in the 580s, when he was at Partaw, the capital of Caucasian Albania. During his stay there, he served as its governor and managed to end the Kingdom of Iberia and turn it into a Sasanian province. Furthermore, Khosrow II also served as the governor of Arbela in Upper Mesopotamia sometime before his accession to the throne.
In 590, Hormizd IV had his prominent general Bahram Chobin disgraced and dismissed. Bahram, infuriated by Hormizd's actions, responded by rebelling, and due to his noble status and great military knowledge, was joined by his soldiers and many others. He then appointed a new governor for Khorasan, and afterwards set out for the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon. The legitimacy of the House of Sasan was based on acceptance that the halo of kingship, the farr, was given to the first Sasanian emperor, Ardashir I (r. 224–242) and his family following the latter's conquest of the Parthian Empire. This was now, however, disputed by Bahram Chobin, thus marking the first time in Sasanian history that a Parthian dynast challenged the legitimacy of the Sasanian family by rebelling.
Meanwhile, Hormizd tried to come to terms with his brothers-in-law Vistahm and Vinduyih, who, according to the Syriac language writer Joshua the Stylite, both "equally hated Hormizd". The two brothers overthrew Hormizd in a seemingly bloodless palace revolution. They had Hormizd blinded with a red-hot needle, and put Khosrow II on the throne. Sometime in the summer of 590, the two brothers then had Hormizd killed, with at least the implicit approval of Khosrow II. Nevertheless, Bahram Chobin continued his march to Ctesiphon, now with the pretext of claiming to avenge Hormizd.