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Massacre of 1391
The Massacre of 1391, also known as the pogroms of 1391, refers to a murderous wave of mass violence committed against the Jews of Spain by the Catholic populace in the crowns of Castile and Aragon in 1391. It was one of the most lethal outbreaks of violence against Jews in medieval Spain, and in medieval European history. Anti-Jewish violence then continued throughout the "Reconquista", culminating in the 1492 expulsion of the Jews from Spain. The first wave in 1391 marked the extreme of such violence.
Under duress, Jews began to convert en masse to Roman Catholicism across the Iberian Peninsula after the massacre, resulting in a substantial population of conversos known as Marranos. Catholics then began to accuse the conversos of secretly maintaining Jewish practices, and of thus undermining the newly united kingdom's nascent national identity. In 1492, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain Ferdinand and Isabella issued the Alhambra Decree, which ordered the expulsion of Jews who had not converted to Catholicism. The resulting diaspora came to be known as the Sephardic Jews.
The earliest archaeological evidence of a Jewish presence in Iberia is a 2nd-century CE gravestone from Mérida, though their arrival may predate this, possibly with Phoenician traders or during Carthaginian rule. Conditions for Jews worsened significantly after the late 6th century when the rulers of the Visigothic Kingdom converted to the Nicene Creed.
Following the 8th-century Umayyad conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Jews in Al-Andalus lived under the dhimmi system. The 10th and 11th centuries are often considered a "Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain," marked by flourishing religious, cultural, and economic life, including Hebrew Bible studies and secular Hebrew poetry. The fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031 and the Almohad invasion of the mid-12th century are considered the end of the Golden Age, and many Jews fled to North Africa or to Christian kingdoms.
Al-Andalus existed for seven centuries (710–1492), a period known in Spain as the Reconquista (Reconquest) and defined by conflict with northern Christian kingdoms. By 1391, any "golden age" had passed; Jews faced persecution and antisemitic mob violence throughout the 14th century in the Christian kingdoms of Spain.
Under Christian rule, Jews faced higher taxes than Catholics, and were largely confined to "marginal" occupations like banking and finance, particularly tax collection and moneylending. This fueled economic antisemitism, with accusations of usury and market manipulation. Official Church antisemitism, including deicide and blood libel accusations, further inflamed attitudes. The Council of Vienne in 1311–1312 negated remaining civil liberties for Jews in Muslim Al-Andalus.
Peter of Castile (30 August 1334 – 23 March 1369, known as 'Don Pedro' and 'Peter the Cruel' in some English-language histories) was King of Castile and León from 1350 to 1369. He was excommunicated by Pope Urban V for his anti-clericalism.
While branded a heretic by the church, Peter gained a reputation as protector of the Jews, particularly in light of the policies of half-brother, arch-rival, and his eventual murderer and usurper Henry of Trastámara (13 January 1334 – 29 May 1379; known as el Fratricida). As an avowed rebel and Peter's upstart rival, Henry had his forces murder over 1,200 Jews in 1355 in the province of Asturias alone. Additional massacres followed in 1360 and 1366.
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Massacre of 1391
The Massacre of 1391, also known as the pogroms of 1391, refers to a murderous wave of mass violence committed against the Jews of Spain by the Catholic populace in the crowns of Castile and Aragon in 1391. It was one of the most lethal outbreaks of violence against Jews in medieval Spain, and in medieval European history. Anti-Jewish violence then continued throughout the "Reconquista", culminating in the 1492 expulsion of the Jews from Spain. The first wave in 1391 marked the extreme of such violence.
Under duress, Jews began to convert en masse to Roman Catholicism across the Iberian Peninsula after the massacre, resulting in a substantial population of conversos known as Marranos. Catholics then began to accuse the conversos of secretly maintaining Jewish practices, and of thus undermining the newly united kingdom's nascent national identity. In 1492, the Catholic Monarchs of Spain Ferdinand and Isabella issued the Alhambra Decree, which ordered the expulsion of Jews who had not converted to Catholicism. The resulting diaspora came to be known as the Sephardic Jews.
The earliest archaeological evidence of a Jewish presence in Iberia is a 2nd-century CE gravestone from Mérida, though their arrival may predate this, possibly with Phoenician traders or during Carthaginian rule. Conditions for Jews worsened significantly after the late 6th century when the rulers of the Visigothic Kingdom converted to the Nicene Creed.
Following the 8th-century Umayyad conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Jews in Al-Andalus lived under the dhimmi system. The 10th and 11th centuries are often considered a "Golden Age of Jewish culture in Spain," marked by flourishing religious, cultural, and economic life, including Hebrew Bible studies and secular Hebrew poetry. The fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031 and the Almohad invasion of the mid-12th century are considered the end of the Golden Age, and many Jews fled to North Africa or to Christian kingdoms.
Al-Andalus existed for seven centuries (710–1492), a period known in Spain as the Reconquista (Reconquest) and defined by conflict with northern Christian kingdoms. By 1391, any "golden age" had passed; Jews faced persecution and antisemitic mob violence throughout the 14th century in the Christian kingdoms of Spain.
Under Christian rule, Jews faced higher taxes than Catholics, and were largely confined to "marginal" occupations like banking and finance, particularly tax collection and moneylending. This fueled economic antisemitism, with accusations of usury and market manipulation. Official Church antisemitism, including deicide and blood libel accusations, further inflamed attitudes. The Council of Vienne in 1311–1312 negated remaining civil liberties for Jews in Muslim Al-Andalus.
Peter of Castile (30 August 1334 – 23 March 1369, known as 'Don Pedro' and 'Peter the Cruel' in some English-language histories) was King of Castile and León from 1350 to 1369. He was excommunicated by Pope Urban V for his anti-clericalism.
While branded a heretic by the church, Peter gained a reputation as protector of the Jews, particularly in light of the policies of half-brother, arch-rival, and his eventual murderer and usurper Henry of Trastámara (13 January 1334 – 29 May 1379; known as el Fratricida). As an avowed rebel and Peter's upstart rival, Henry had his forces murder over 1,200 Jews in 1355 in the province of Asturias alone. Additional massacres followed in 1360 and 1366.
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