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Government of the Ming dynasty
The government of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was modeled after the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Over time, the government system changed and adapted to circumstances. The Ming government was traditionally divided into three branches—civil, military and surveillance, with the imperial household and its eunuchs holding a distinct position.
In the beginning, the central civil authorities were led by the Central Secretariat, which oversaw Six Ministries and other less significant institutions. The Chief Military Commission served as the high command of the army, while the Censorate held the highest control authority. The empire was divided into two metropolitan areas and thirteen provinces, each of which was managed by a Branch Secretariat. The lower levels of administration included prefectures and subprefectures, with the lowest level being the counties. There were approximately 1,400 counties in Ming China.
In 1376, the Branch Secretariats were abolished and replaced by three provincial offices: the Provincial Administrative Office, the Regional Military Commission, and the Provincial Surveillance Office. Four years later, a reorganization took place in the center as well. The Central Secretariat was abolished, the Chief Military Commission was divided into five Chief Military Commissions, and the Censorate was also divided. In the following decades, there was a trend towards centralization once again. The Censorate was restored under a new name, and the role of the Secretariat was taken over by the new Grand Secretariat. Additionally, provincial governors or grand coordinators were appointed to oversee all three provincial offices. Initially, these governors were sent to the provinces on a temporary basis, but eventually, they were permanently stationed there.
Although initially prohibited from involvement in politics, the eunuchs of the imperial palace gained significant influence during the Yongle era. Over time, a number of eunuch agencies emerged in various regions, running parallel to the traditional offices.
The civil administration was primarily staffed by Confucian-educated officials who had passed a rigorous multi-stage examination process to verify their education. Junior officer positions were often passed down through families, while senior officers were chosen based on their abilities.
Over the course of two thousand years, the structure of executive power in China remained largely unchanged, with each dynasty making additions as they saw fit. The Han dynasty established the "Three Departments and Six Ministries" system for central administration, while the Ming dynasty had only one office—the Central Secretariat—overseeing Six Ministries. In 1380, the Hongwu Emperor executed Chancellor Hu Weiyong and abolished the highest level of administration, including the Central Secretariat, Censorate, and Chief Military Commission. He personally took control of the Six Ministries and five Chief Military Commissions, placing their leaders at the top of the official hierarchy. These six ministers and the head of the reorganized Censorate were informally known as the "Seven Chief Ministers" (七卿). In more important court discussions, they were joined by the head of the Office of Transmission (通政司) and the head of the Court of Judicature and Revision, making them the "Nine Chief Ministers". While matters involving multiple departments were discussed by the Seven or Nine Chief Ministers, the final decision always rested with the emperor, who had the power to change it at any time.
The administration of the empire required a well-structured system of laws. In 1364, the compilation of a new Confucian code, known as the Great Ming Code, began. This code was heavily influenced by the Tang Code from 653. The initial draft was completed in 1367 and the final version was adopted in 1397. This code remained unchanged until the empire's downfall, when it was amended with additional provisions.
The judiciary in China was not independent; local civil authorities held judicial power. Verdicts made by local authorities were subject to review by provincial authorities, and important cases were reviewed by the Ministry of Justice. Conflicts involving military personnel and the law were handled by their commanders, with further review taking place at the provincial regional military commissions and the Chief Military Commissions in the capital. Cases overseen by provincial control authorities were examined by the Censorate. The most serious cases were discussed by the Court of Judicature and Revision, which included representatives from the Ministry of Justice, the Chief Military Commissions, and the Censorate. The emperor's approval was required for death sentences.
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Government of the Ming dynasty
The government of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was modeled after the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Over time, the government system changed and adapted to circumstances. The Ming government was traditionally divided into three branches—civil, military and surveillance, with the imperial household and its eunuchs holding a distinct position.
In the beginning, the central civil authorities were led by the Central Secretariat, which oversaw Six Ministries and other less significant institutions. The Chief Military Commission served as the high command of the army, while the Censorate held the highest control authority. The empire was divided into two metropolitan areas and thirteen provinces, each of which was managed by a Branch Secretariat. The lower levels of administration included prefectures and subprefectures, with the lowest level being the counties. There were approximately 1,400 counties in Ming China.
In 1376, the Branch Secretariats were abolished and replaced by three provincial offices: the Provincial Administrative Office, the Regional Military Commission, and the Provincial Surveillance Office. Four years later, a reorganization took place in the center as well. The Central Secretariat was abolished, the Chief Military Commission was divided into five Chief Military Commissions, and the Censorate was also divided. In the following decades, there was a trend towards centralization once again. The Censorate was restored under a new name, and the role of the Secretariat was taken over by the new Grand Secretariat. Additionally, provincial governors or grand coordinators were appointed to oversee all three provincial offices. Initially, these governors were sent to the provinces on a temporary basis, but eventually, they were permanently stationed there.
Although initially prohibited from involvement in politics, the eunuchs of the imperial palace gained significant influence during the Yongle era. Over time, a number of eunuch agencies emerged in various regions, running parallel to the traditional offices.
The civil administration was primarily staffed by Confucian-educated officials who had passed a rigorous multi-stage examination process to verify their education. Junior officer positions were often passed down through families, while senior officers were chosen based on their abilities.
Over the course of two thousand years, the structure of executive power in China remained largely unchanged, with each dynasty making additions as they saw fit. The Han dynasty established the "Three Departments and Six Ministries" system for central administration, while the Ming dynasty had only one office—the Central Secretariat—overseeing Six Ministries. In 1380, the Hongwu Emperor executed Chancellor Hu Weiyong and abolished the highest level of administration, including the Central Secretariat, Censorate, and Chief Military Commission. He personally took control of the Six Ministries and five Chief Military Commissions, placing their leaders at the top of the official hierarchy. These six ministers and the head of the reorganized Censorate were informally known as the "Seven Chief Ministers" (七卿). In more important court discussions, they were joined by the head of the Office of Transmission (通政司) and the head of the Court of Judicature and Revision, making them the "Nine Chief Ministers". While matters involving multiple departments were discussed by the Seven or Nine Chief Ministers, the final decision always rested with the emperor, who had the power to change it at any time.
The administration of the empire required a well-structured system of laws. In 1364, the compilation of a new Confucian code, known as the Great Ming Code, began. This code was heavily influenced by the Tang Code from 653. The initial draft was completed in 1367 and the final version was adopted in 1397. This code remained unchanged until the empire's downfall, when it was amended with additional provisions.
The judiciary in China was not independent; local civil authorities held judicial power. Verdicts made by local authorities were subject to review by provincial authorities, and important cases were reviewed by the Ministry of Justice. Conflicts involving military personnel and the law were handled by their commanders, with further review taking place at the provincial regional military commissions and the Chief Military Commissions in the capital. Cases overseen by provincial control authorities were examined by the Censorate. The most serious cases were discussed by the Court of Judicature and Revision, which included representatives from the Ministry of Justice, the Chief Military Commissions, and the Censorate. The emperor's approval was required for death sentences.