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Paternal care
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Paternal care
In biology, paternal care is parental investment provided by a male to his own offspring. It is a complex social behavior in vertebrates associated with animal mating systems, life history traits, and ecology. Paternal care may be provided in concert with the mother (biparental care) or, more rarely, by the male alone (exclusive paternal care).
The provision of care, by either males or females, is presumed to increase growth rates, quality, and/or survival of the young, ultimately increasing the inclusive fitness of the parents. In a variety of vertebrate species (e.g., about 80% of birds and about 6% of mammals), both males and females invest heavily in their offspring. Many of these bi-parental species are socially monogamous, so individuals remain with their mate for at least one breeding season[citation needed].
Exclusive paternal care has evolved multiple times in a variety of organisms, including invertebrates, fishes, and amphibians.
Male mammals employ different behaviors to enhance their reproductive success (e.g., courtship displays and mate choice). However, the benefits of paternal care have rarely been studied in mammals, largely because only 5-10% of mammals exhibit such care (mostly present in primates, rodents, and canids). For species in which males provide extensive care for their offspring, indirect evidence suggests that the costs can be substantial. For example, mammalian fathers that care for their young may undergo changes in body mass and an increase in the production of various costly hormones (e.g., androgens, glucocorticoids, leptin). Nonetheless, there is evidence suggesting that across all mammals, when males carry and groom their offspring, their female partner's fecundity increases[citation needed]. Furthermore, if males provide for the females, their litter size tends to be larger.
Several species of rodents have been studied as models of paternal care, including prairie voles, Campbell's dwarf hamster, the Mongolian gerbil, and the African striped mouse. The California mouse is a monogamous rodent that exhibits extensive and essential paternal care, and therefore has been studied as a model organism for this phenomenon. One study of this species found that fathers had larger hindlimb muscles than those of non-breeding males. Quantitative genetic analysis has identified several genomic regions that affect paternal care.
Human cultures and societies vary widely in the expression of paternal care. Some cultures recognize paternal care via celebration of Father's Day. Human paternal care is a derived characteristic (evolved in humans or our recent ancestors) and one of the defining characteristics of Homo sapiens. Different aspects of human paternal care (direct, indirect, fostering social or moral development) may have evolved at different points in our history, and together they form a unique suite of behaviors, as compared to the great apes[citation needed]. One study of humans has found evidence suggesting a possible evolutionary trade-off between mating success and parenting involvement; specifically, fathers with smaller testes tend to be more involved in the care of their children.
Research on the effects of paternal care on human happiness has yielded conflicting results. However, one study concluded that fathers generally report higher levels of happiness, positive emotion, and meaning in life, as compared with non-fathers.
According to the United States Census Bureau, approximately one-third of children in the U.S. grow up without their biological father in their home. Numerous studies have documented negative consequences of being raised in a home that lacks a father, including increased likelihood of living in poverty, behavioral problems, committing crimes, spending time in prison, abusing drugs or alcohol, becoming obese, and dropping out of school.
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Paternal care AI simulator
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Paternal care
In biology, paternal care is parental investment provided by a male to his own offspring. It is a complex social behavior in vertebrates associated with animal mating systems, life history traits, and ecology. Paternal care may be provided in concert with the mother (biparental care) or, more rarely, by the male alone (exclusive paternal care).
The provision of care, by either males or females, is presumed to increase growth rates, quality, and/or survival of the young, ultimately increasing the inclusive fitness of the parents. In a variety of vertebrate species (e.g., about 80% of birds and about 6% of mammals), both males and females invest heavily in their offspring. Many of these bi-parental species are socially monogamous, so individuals remain with their mate for at least one breeding season[citation needed].
Exclusive paternal care has evolved multiple times in a variety of organisms, including invertebrates, fishes, and amphibians.
Male mammals employ different behaviors to enhance their reproductive success (e.g., courtship displays and mate choice). However, the benefits of paternal care have rarely been studied in mammals, largely because only 5-10% of mammals exhibit such care (mostly present in primates, rodents, and canids). For species in which males provide extensive care for their offspring, indirect evidence suggests that the costs can be substantial. For example, mammalian fathers that care for their young may undergo changes in body mass and an increase in the production of various costly hormones (e.g., androgens, glucocorticoids, leptin). Nonetheless, there is evidence suggesting that across all mammals, when males carry and groom their offspring, their female partner's fecundity increases[citation needed]. Furthermore, if males provide for the females, their litter size tends to be larger.
Several species of rodents have been studied as models of paternal care, including prairie voles, Campbell's dwarf hamster, the Mongolian gerbil, and the African striped mouse. The California mouse is a monogamous rodent that exhibits extensive and essential paternal care, and therefore has been studied as a model organism for this phenomenon. One study of this species found that fathers had larger hindlimb muscles than those of non-breeding males. Quantitative genetic analysis has identified several genomic regions that affect paternal care.
Human cultures and societies vary widely in the expression of paternal care. Some cultures recognize paternal care via celebration of Father's Day. Human paternal care is a derived characteristic (evolved in humans or our recent ancestors) and one of the defining characteristics of Homo sapiens. Different aspects of human paternal care (direct, indirect, fostering social or moral development) may have evolved at different points in our history, and together they form a unique suite of behaviors, as compared to the great apes[citation needed]. One study of humans has found evidence suggesting a possible evolutionary trade-off between mating success and parenting involvement; specifically, fathers with smaller testes tend to be more involved in the care of their children.
Research on the effects of paternal care on human happiness has yielded conflicting results. However, one study concluded that fathers generally report higher levels of happiness, positive emotion, and meaning in life, as compared with non-fathers.
According to the United States Census Bureau, approximately one-third of children in the U.S. grow up without their biological father in their home. Numerous studies have documented negative consequences of being raised in a home that lacks a father, including increased likelihood of living in poverty, behavioral problems, committing crimes, spending time in prison, abusing drugs or alcohol, becoming obese, and dropping out of school.