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Peopling of China
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Peopling of China
In the course of the peopling of the World by Homo sapiens, East Asia was reached about 50,000 years ago (50 kya). The "recent African origin" lineage from 70 kya diverged into identifiable East Eurasian and West Eurasian lineages by about 50 kya. The East Eurasian ancestors of East Asians used a southern route to reach South and Southeast Asia, along which they rapidly diverged into the ancestors of Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI), Papuans, East Asians and Andamanese peoples (such as the Onge). This early East Asian lineage diverged further during the Last Glacial Maximum, spreading northwards from Mainland Southeast Asia where it significantly contributed to the peopling of the Americas via Beringia about 25 kya. After the last ice age, China was cut off from neighboring island groups. The phenotypes of early East Asians were either replaced or prevailed among more geographically distant groups.
A "Basal-East Asian population", referred to as the East and Southeast Asian lineage (ESEA), is ancestral to the Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers of Southeast Asia and the Tianyuan lineage found in Northern China and also, modern East Asians, Southeast Asians, Polynesians, and Siberians. The ESEA lineage descend from an earlier "eastern non-African" (ENA) or "Ancient East Eurasian" meta-population, which used a single southern route to reach South, Southeast Asia, and Oceania, and along which they rapidly diverged into the ancestors of Ancient South Asians (AASI), East/Southeast Asians (ESEA), as well as Australasians. This ESEA lineage later diverged into the Hoabinhian, the Tianyuan, and Ancient East Asian lineages, and expanded northward. The Ancient East Asian lineage later split into Ancient Southern East Asians and Ancient Northern East Asians. There is "a strong correlation with latitude, with diversity decreasing from south to north".
Basal Asian-related populations related to the Tianyuan man were widespread in across northern East Asia at least 40,000 years ago. However, they were replaced by an AR19K-related population from the Amur River region near the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. This AR19K-related population carried EDAR_V370A variants, which was previously absent in East Asia. The AR19K-related population was basal to younger samples of Ancient Northern East Asians, who form a sister lineage to Ancient Southern East Asians, with both lineages diverging at least 19,000 years ago. There's also evidence of a distinct Ancient Northern East Asian lineage that diverged around the same time as the AR19K-related lineage and is represented by the ~11,000-year-old Donghulin individual from Beijing, China. Other studies suggest that the ancestors of ancient East Asians were a mixture of Tianyuan-related and Early Neolithic Xingyi-related lineages. Several ancient Northeast Asian individuals from inland East Asia (Yumin) and the Devil's Gate Cave (NEO240) can also be modeled as mixtures of deep lineages that are ancestral to the Jōmon and Tianyuan respectively, despite the latter being more related to the Jōmon.
Neolithic Northern China can be divided into 4 periods: the Pre-Peiligang period (before 7000 BC), the Peiligang period (7000–5000 BC), the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BC), and the Longshan period (3000–2000 BC). The first two correlate with the initial development of Neolithic Chinese culture whilst the latter two correlate with the accelerated development of the Chinese civilization. Modern-day Shandong province in Northern China is home to a series of Neolithic archaeological cultures: Houli culture (6300–5400 BC), Beixin culture (5400–4200 BC), Dawenkou culture (4200–2600 BC), Shandong Longshan culture (2600–2000 BC) and Yueshi culture (1900–1500 BC).
The progenitors of the Han Chinese were Neolithic Yellow River farmers from the Central Plains, who constitute a distinct sublineage within Ancient Northern East Asians. They descend from Proto-Sino-Tibetan-speaking groups in the Yellow River regions, who diverged into Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman groups about 4–8 kya. Yellow River groups were also genetically distinguishable from Early Neolithic Shandong hunter-gatherers, who have affinities with Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA) from the Amur River Basin and Mongolian Plateau, as well as Tibetan populations. Other studies suggest that Early Neolithic Shandong hunter-gatherers were distinct from ANA and might even precede ANA groups from coastal Northern China. Populations from coastal Northern China also contributed to the East Asian ancestries of East Asians, Jōmon peoples, East Siberians and Native Americans since the Last Glacial Maximum. Early Neolithic Shandong hunter-gatherers are also estimated to receive gene flow from AR14K-related or Donghulin-related sources.
Yangshao-related Yellow River populations show high genetic similarities with the Dahecun and Wenshaobei populations from Henan and Shandong respectively. Longshan-related populations from the Central Plains are modeled as having ancient Eastern Chinese-related, Northern East Asian-related and Southern East Asian-related ancestries. Those from Shandong were genetically similar but received more input from Shandong hunter-gatherers and Southern East Asians. Successors of Longshan-related Yellow River population show continuity and they've impacted several East Asian groups such as West Liao River populations, Songshan populations and modern Han Chinese.
According to a 2025 study, Middle Neolithic Yellow River groups exhibit distinct substructure. For example, lower Yellow River groups are characterized by Middle Neolithic Yellow River ancestry (24%–73.1%), hunter-gatherer ancestry from Early Neolithic coastal Northern China (23.8%–46.8%), Southern East Asian-related ancestry (7.1%–57.3%; average 32.3%) and ANA-related ancestry (5.2%–16.5%). Meanwhile, upper Yellow River groups are characterized by Middle Neolithic Yellow River ancestry (21%–87.9%), Zongri5.1k-related ancestry (8.3%–55%) and ANA-related ancestry (6.5%–91.7%). Conversely, middle Yellow River groups do not exhibit significant admixture with non-Yellow River groups although admixture with ANA-related groups peak in higher-latitude regions. Zongri5.1k-related ancestry is also found in some local sites from Shaanxi and Shanxi. Some middle Yellow River groups have Southern East Asian-related ancestry and it is best described as Yangtzean ancestry, which also constitutes the Southern East Asian ancestry found within lower Yellow River groups. Yangtzean ancestry derives 60% of its ancestry from Southeast China and the rest from Yellow River groups. Ancient Paleo-Siberian-related ancestry is additionally detected in some ancient Northern Chinese populations, including populations from the upper and middle Yellow River and West Liao River regions.
Among modern Han subgroups, Han Chinese from Henan, Shandong and Shanxi show the most continuity with post-Late Neolithic Yellow River groups and can even be modeled as their direct descendants. Other Han subgroups have more southern East Asian-related ancestry, especially in Southern China, although studies show that all Han subgroups have matrilineal admixture with minorities in their respective localities. Modern northern Han Chinese are also shown to be closely related to Late Neolithic Yellow River-related populations from Shimao or Neolithic Wuzhuangguoliang-related populations from the Upper Yellow River region. Siberian and West Eurasian-related ancestry is detected in some modern Northwest and Central Han Chinese, along with highland Tibetan-related ancestry, which is also found in some modern Northeast Chinese. Another study states that Central Plains populations show continuity from the Tang dynasty, with no signifcant admixture with northern Asian groups, although Tang-era populations received some minimal Central Asian-related input. Post-Tang populations were also directly ancestral to modern Han Chinese from Henan and Shandong. Besides the Han Chinese, populations who are closely related to Neolithic Yellow River farmers include Naxi, Yi, Gelao, indigenous populations from the Himalayan region and western Japanese (i.e. Kansai) people.
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Peopling of China
In the course of the peopling of the World by Homo sapiens, East Asia was reached about 50,000 years ago (50 kya). The "recent African origin" lineage from 70 kya diverged into identifiable East Eurasian and West Eurasian lineages by about 50 kya. The East Eurasian ancestors of East Asians used a southern route to reach South and Southeast Asia, along which they rapidly diverged into the ancestors of Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI), Papuans, East Asians and Andamanese peoples (such as the Onge). This early East Asian lineage diverged further during the Last Glacial Maximum, spreading northwards from Mainland Southeast Asia where it significantly contributed to the peopling of the Americas via Beringia about 25 kya. After the last ice age, China was cut off from neighboring island groups. The phenotypes of early East Asians were either replaced or prevailed among more geographically distant groups.
A "Basal-East Asian population", referred to as the East and Southeast Asian lineage (ESEA), is ancestral to the Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers of Southeast Asia and the Tianyuan lineage found in Northern China and also, modern East Asians, Southeast Asians, Polynesians, and Siberians. The ESEA lineage descend from an earlier "eastern non-African" (ENA) or "Ancient East Eurasian" meta-population, which used a single southern route to reach South, Southeast Asia, and Oceania, and along which they rapidly diverged into the ancestors of Ancient South Asians (AASI), East/Southeast Asians (ESEA), as well as Australasians. This ESEA lineage later diverged into the Hoabinhian, the Tianyuan, and Ancient East Asian lineages, and expanded northward. The Ancient East Asian lineage later split into Ancient Southern East Asians and Ancient Northern East Asians. There is "a strong correlation with latitude, with diversity decreasing from south to north".
Basal Asian-related populations related to the Tianyuan man were widespread in across northern East Asia at least 40,000 years ago. However, they were replaced by an AR19K-related population from the Amur River region near the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. This AR19K-related population carried EDAR_V370A variants, which was previously absent in East Asia. The AR19K-related population was basal to younger samples of Ancient Northern East Asians, who form a sister lineage to Ancient Southern East Asians, with both lineages diverging at least 19,000 years ago. There's also evidence of a distinct Ancient Northern East Asian lineage that diverged around the same time as the AR19K-related lineage and is represented by the ~11,000-year-old Donghulin individual from Beijing, China. Other studies suggest that the ancestors of ancient East Asians were a mixture of Tianyuan-related and Early Neolithic Xingyi-related lineages. Several ancient Northeast Asian individuals from inland East Asia (Yumin) and the Devil's Gate Cave (NEO240) can also be modeled as mixtures of deep lineages that are ancestral to the Jōmon and Tianyuan respectively, despite the latter being more related to the Jōmon.
Neolithic Northern China can be divided into 4 periods: the Pre-Peiligang period (before 7000 BC), the Peiligang period (7000–5000 BC), the Yangshao period (5000–3000 BC), and the Longshan period (3000–2000 BC). The first two correlate with the initial development of Neolithic Chinese culture whilst the latter two correlate with the accelerated development of the Chinese civilization. Modern-day Shandong province in Northern China is home to a series of Neolithic archaeological cultures: Houli culture (6300–5400 BC), Beixin culture (5400–4200 BC), Dawenkou culture (4200–2600 BC), Shandong Longshan culture (2600–2000 BC) and Yueshi culture (1900–1500 BC).
The progenitors of the Han Chinese were Neolithic Yellow River farmers from the Central Plains, who constitute a distinct sublineage within Ancient Northern East Asians. They descend from Proto-Sino-Tibetan-speaking groups in the Yellow River regions, who diverged into Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman groups about 4–8 kya. Yellow River groups were also genetically distinguishable from Early Neolithic Shandong hunter-gatherers, who have affinities with Ancient Northeast Asians (ANA) from the Amur River Basin and Mongolian Plateau, as well as Tibetan populations. Other studies suggest that Early Neolithic Shandong hunter-gatherers were distinct from ANA and might even precede ANA groups from coastal Northern China. Populations from coastal Northern China also contributed to the East Asian ancestries of East Asians, Jōmon peoples, East Siberians and Native Americans since the Last Glacial Maximum. Early Neolithic Shandong hunter-gatherers are also estimated to receive gene flow from AR14K-related or Donghulin-related sources.
Yangshao-related Yellow River populations show high genetic similarities with the Dahecun and Wenshaobei populations from Henan and Shandong respectively. Longshan-related populations from the Central Plains are modeled as having ancient Eastern Chinese-related, Northern East Asian-related and Southern East Asian-related ancestries. Those from Shandong were genetically similar but received more input from Shandong hunter-gatherers and Southern East Asians. Successors of Longshan-related Yellow River population show continuity and they've impacted several East Asian groups such as West Liao River populations, Songshan populations and modern Han Chinese.
According to a 2025 study, Middle Neolithic Yellow River groups exhibit distinct substructure. For example, lower Yellow River groups are characterized by Middle Neolithic Yellow River ancestry (24%–73.1%), hunter-gatherer ancestry from Early Neolithic coastal Northern China (23.8%–46.8%), Southern East Asian-related ancestry (7.1%–57.3%; average 32.3%) and ANA-related ancestry (5.2%–16.5%). Meanwhile, upper Yellow River groups are characterized by Middle Neolithic Yellow River ancestry (21%–87.9%), Zongri5.1k-related ancestry (8.3%–55%) and ANA-related ancestry (6.5%–91.7%). Conversely, middle Yellow River groups do not exhibit significant admixture with non-Yellow River groups although admixture with ANA-related groups peak in higher-latitude regions. Zongri5.1k-related ancestry is also found in some local sites from Shaanxi and Shanxi. Some middle Yellow River groups have Southern East Asian-related ancestry and it is best described as Yangtzean ancestry, which also constitutes the Southern East Asian ancestry found within lower Yellow River groups. Yangtzean ancestry derives 60% of its ancestry from Southeast China and the rest from Yellow River groups. Ancient Paleo-Siberian-related ancestry is additionally detected in some ancient Northern Chinese populations, including populations from the upper and middle Yellow River and West Liao River regions.
Among modern Han subgroups, Han Chinese from Henan, Shandong and Shanxi show the most continuity with post-Late Neolithic Yellow River groups and can even be modeled as their direct descendants. Other Han subgroups have more southern East Asian-related ancestry, especially in Southern China, although studies show that all Han subgroups have matrilineal admixture with minorities in their respective localities. Modern northern Han Chinese are also shown to be closely related to Late Neolithic Yellow River-related populations from Shimao or Neolithic Wuzhuangguoliang-related populations from the Upper Yellow River region. Siberian and West Eurasian-related ancestry is detected in some modern Northwest and Central Han Chinese, along with highland Tibetan-related ancestry, which is also found in some modern Northeast Chinese. Another study states that Central Plains populations show continuity from the Tang dynasty, with no signifcant admixture with northern Asian groups, although Tang-era populations received some minimal Central Asian-related input. Post-Tang populations were also directly ancestral to modern Han Chinese from Henan and Shandong. Besides the Han Chinese, populations who are closely related to Neolithic Yellow River farmers include Naxi, Yi, Gelao, indigenous populations from the Himalayan region and western Japanese (i.e. Kansai) people.