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Peter Cooper Hewitt
Peter Cooper Hewitt
Peter Cooper Hewitt
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Peter Cooper Hewitt (May 5, 1861 – August 25, 1921) was an American electrical engineer and inventor, who invented the first mercury-vapor lamp in 1901.[1] Hewitt was issued U.S. patent 682,692 on September 17, 1901.[2] In 1903, Hewitt created an improved version that possessed higher color qualities which eventually found widespread industrial use.[1]

Key Information

Early life

[edit]

Hewitt was born in New York City, the son of New York City Mayor Abram Hewitt and the grandson of industrialist Peter Cooper. He was educated at the Stevens Institute of Technology and the Columbia University School of Mines.[3][4]

Career

[edit]
Cooper Hewitt's mercury vapor lamp, the forerunner of the fluorescent lamp

In 1901, Hewitt invented and patented a mercury-vapor lamp that was the forerunner of the fluorescent lamp. A gas-discharge lamp, Hewitt's invention used mercury vapor produced by passing current through liquid mercury. His first lamps had to be started by tilting the tube to make contact between the two electrodes and the liquid mercury; later he developed the inductive electrical ballast to start the tube. The efficiency was much higher than that of incandescent lamps, but the emitted light was of a bluish-green unpleasant color, which limited its practical use to specific professional areas, like photography, where the color was not an issue at a time where films were black and white. For space lighting use, the lamp was frequently augmented by a standard incandescent lamp.[5] The two together provided a more acceptable color while retaining some efficiency advantages.

In 1902, Hewitt developed the mercury arc rectifier, the first rectifier that could convert alternating current power to direct current without mechanical means. It was widely used in electric railways, industry, electroplating, and high-voltage direct current (HVDC) power transmission. Although it was largely replaced by power semiconductor devices in the 1970s and 1980s, it is still used in some high power applications.

In 1903, Columbia University awarded Hewitt the degree of Honorary Doctorate of Science in recognition of his work.[6]

In 1907, he developed and tested an early hydrofoil. In 1916, Hewitt joined Elmer Sperry to develop the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, one of the first successful precursors of the cruise missile.

Personal life

[edit]
Portrait of Mrs. Peter Cooper Hewitt (1911-13), by Giovanni Boldini.

Hewitt's first wife was Lucy Bond Work.[7] Work was the daughter of Franklin H. Work (1819–1911), a well-known stockbroker and protégé of Cornelius Vanderbilt, and his wife, Ellen Wood (1831–1877),[8] who was the sister of Frances Ellen Work.[9] Thus he was an uncle of Maurice Roche, 4th Baron Fermoy, the maternal grandfather of Diana, Princess of Wales. Cooper Hewitt and his first wife had no children and divorced in December 1918.[10]

While married to Work, Hewitt had an extramarital relationship with Marion (aka Maryon) Jeanne Andrews that resulted in the birth of Ann Cooper Hewitt (July 28, 1914-1956). Hewitt later married Andrews in 1918, right after his divorce to Work, and formally adopted Ann.

External image
image icon Ann Cooper Hewitt

Prior to Hewitt, Andrews was married in 1902 to Dr. Peder Sather Bruguiere (brother of American photographer Francis Bruguière, brother-in-law of heiress Margaret Post Van Alen and grandson of banker Peder Sather) and in 1907 to wealthy New York broker Alexander Turner Stewart Denning.[11]

After Hewitt, Andrews married in 1922 to Baron Robert Frederic Emile Regis D'Erlanger and in 1926 to George William Childs McCarter (grandson of American author Hannah Mary Bouvier Peterson, great-grandson of Judge John Bouvier and nephew-in-law of American publisher George William Childs).

Ann Cooper Hewitt

[edit]
Main article: Ann Cooper Hewitt
Cooper Hewitt lights used in film production (1916).[12]

Peter Cooper Hewitt died in 1921. His will left two-thirds of his estate to Ann and one-third to her mother Marion; but Ann's portion would revert to her mother if Ann (Gay Bradstreet)[11] died childless.[13]

In 1935, just before Ann's 21st birthday when she would have attained legal majority, she was hospitalized for appendicitis. Ann's mother told the surgeons that Ann was "feebleminded" and paid them to sterilize her while performing her appendectomy.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27] Ann retaliated by suing her mother in San Francisco court and telling the press about Maryon's gambling and alcohol addictions. The mother-daughter dispute riveted the public; and the unconventional use of sterilization (it occurred in private practice, not a public asylum) forced a public debate of eugenics.[28]

References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Peter Cooper Hewitt

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Peter Cooper Hewitt (March 5, 1861 – August 25, 1921) was an American electrical engineer and inventor, best known for patenting the in 1901, an early form of gas discharge lighting that achieved greater efficiency than incandescent bulbs by converting into through mercury vapor excitation, laying foundational for modern fluorescent lamps. Born in to Abram Stevens Hewitt, a and iron manufacturer, and Sarah Cooper Hewitt, he was the grandson of industrialist , founder of the ; Hewitt received education at and before focusing on electrical experiments demonstrating gas conductivity. In 1902, he established the Cooper Hewitt Electric Company with backing from to produce the U-shaped mercury lamps, which emitted intense bluish-green suitable for , , and early street illumination, though widespread adoption awaited phosphor coatings to improve color rendering. His work advanced understanding of high-intensity discharge lighting, influencing subsequent developments in energy-efficient illumination despite initial limitations in quality.

Early Life and Family Background

Ancestry and Upbringing

Peter Cooper Hewitt was born on May 5, 1861, in , to Abram Stevens , an iron manufacturer and politician who later served as mayor from 1887 to 1890, and Sarah Amelia Cooper Hewitt, the daughter of industrialist . His paternal grandfather, John Hewitt, was of English descent, while his grandmother Ann Gurnee traced her roots to French ; Abram himself had risen from modest beginnings in , to prominence through partnerships in iron production and mercantile ventures. On his maternal side, (1791–1883), born to Dutch parents in , had amassed wealth through innovations in manufacturing, including early experiments with steam engines and the establishment of glue and production, before founding the in 1859 to provide free technical education amid the era's industrial demands. Hewitt's upbringing occurred in a prosperous household shaped by the family's control of ironworks, such as those at , where operations involved and machinery central to post-Civil War reconstruction efforts from 1865 onward, offering direct exposure to practical and mechanical processes. This environment, enriched by the Cooper-Hewitt enterprises' emphasis on applied engineering, positioned Hewitt within networks of industrial innovators during a period of rapid U.S. economic expansion driven by iron and steel production.

Education and Early Influences

Peter Cooper Hewitt pursued formal education in engineering at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey, and the Columbia University School of Mines during the 1880s. His studies emphasized physics, mechanics, and electrical principles, equipping him with rigorous training in experimental methods and energy systems. Hewitt's early intellectual development drew from his family's industrial legacy, particularly the inventive ethos of his grandfather, , whose work in and fostered an environment conducive to . This background, combined with the era's burgeoning field of , directed his focus toward practical problems in conductivity and power generation, as evidenced by his subsequent experimental pursuits in gaseous discharges. Exposure to foundational research on electrical arcs and vacuum tubes, including mid-19th-century demonstrations by and Heinrich Geissler, informed Hewitt's approach to causal mechanisms in light production and energy efficiency, predating his major inventions. These influences underscored an empirical , prioritizing direct of physical phenomena over theoretical abstraction alone.

Professional Career and Inventions

Early Engineering Work

After graduating from the in 1884 with a degree in , Hewitt entered the family businesses centered on iron and related industrial operations, including the Trenton Iron Works established by his grandfather and managed by relatives such as his father Abram S. Hewitt. These enterprises, prominent in producing iron products for railroads and during the late , provided Hewitt with hands-on experience in mechanical and processes amid the era's industrial expansion. By the early 1890s, Hewitt shifted toward pursuits, conducting foundational experiments on electrical discharges, particularly mercury-arc phenomena, to explore conduction in vapors and potential rectification applications for power systems. These efforts built empirical observations of current flow through ionized gases, predating his later commercialization of related technologies and reflecting the growing interest in electrical power distribution amid the "War of Currents" between AC and DC advocates. His work emphasized practical testing of discharge behaviors under varying voltages, contributing data on vapor-based conduction efficiency without yet focusing on illumination.

Development of the Mercury-Vapor Lamp

Peter Cooper Hewitt began systematic experiments with mercury vapor discharge tubes in 1898, motivated by investigations into electrical conductivity in gases and liquids. These efforts built on earlier observations of arc phenomena but focused on achieving stable light production through controlled vaporization of mercury within evacuated glass envelopes. The core mechanism involved applying high-voltage across electrodes in a low-pressure mercury environment, initiating an arc that vaporized a mercury pool and excited mercury atoms via collisions. This excitation led to de-excitation emissions primarily at and visible wavelengths, yielding a distinctive bluish- spectrum from mercury's atomic lines, such as strong peaks around 546 nm () and 436 nm (). While the color rendered many objects unnaturally, the process demonstrated superior efficiency over carbon-filament incandescent bulbs, converting electrical energy to with less loss due to the gaseous discharge nature. Following successful laboratory trials in the late , Hewitt filed for patents culminating in U.S. Patent 682,692 granted on September 17, 1901, describing the as an electric light source. Public demonstrations occurred in 1901, showcasing the lamp's potential for high-intensity illumination. Initial commercial prototypes emphasized tubular designs with external starting mechanisms to initiate the arc, addressing challenges like and for reliable operation.

Other Inventions and Contributions

Hewitt invented the mercury-arc rectifier in 1902, employing mercury vapor to enable unidirectional current flow for efficient conversion of to . This device facilitated high-power applications in industrial motors, electric railways, and traction systems by handling substantial currents with minimal losses compared to contemporary mechanical alternatives. Extending his research on electrical conduction in rarefied gases, Hewitt devised an early telegraph receiver in the , which operated by detecting electromagnetic waves through variations in the resistance of an ionized mercury vapor tube. This contribution advanced rudimentary radio detection principles, leveraging gas discharge phenomena for signal reception without mechanical components. In , Hewitt secured three patents in for a featuring counter-rotating rotors, collaborating with Francis B. Crocker to build a full-scale model capable of sustained flight. These designs addressed vertical lift and stability challenges through rotor configurations, predating widespread development.

Patents and Commercialization Efforts

Peter Cooper Hewitt secured U.S. Patent 682,692 on September 17, 1901, for a method of manufacturing electric lamps utilizing mercury vapor, marking the foundational protection for his mercury-vapor lamp invention. This patent covered the core process of generating light through electrical discharge in mercury vapor, enabling subsequent refinements and related filings. In 1902, Hewitt partnered with to establish the Cooper Hewitt Electric Company, a Westinghouse-backed entity dedicated to producing and marketing the mercury-vapor lamps commercially. The company focused on scaling manufacturing for applications like street and factory , where the lamps' high —up to four times that of incandescent bulbs—offered potential cost savings despite operational complexities. Westinghouse's involvement provided essential capital and distribution networks, facilitating initial deployments in industrial settings. Commercialization efforts encountered hurdles, including the need for specialized ballasts to regulate current and robust mercury containment to prevent leaks, which increased production costs and maintenance demands. These factors constrained widespread adoption, limiting sales primarily to niche high-intensity uses rather than general household . In 1919, acquired the Cooper Hewitt Electric Company, integrating its patents and technology into broader portfolios, though GE did not achieve mass-market success with Hewitt's original design until developing European-inspired improvements in . Hewitt's licensing strategy thus yielded targeted revenue through partnerships but fell short of transformative economic impact due to these persistent engineering limitations.

Personal Life

Marriages and Relationships

Peter Cooper Hewitt married Lucy Bond Work, daughter of financier Franklin H. Work, on April 27, 1887. The union produced no children. While still married to Work, Hewitt commenced an extramarital relationship with Marion Jeanne Andrews (also known as Maryon), a previously wed to physician Peder S. de Bruguiere from 1902 until their divorce. This liaison, which began in the early , resulted in the birth of their daughter on July 28, 1913. Work secured a divorce from Hewitt in 1918. Hewitt wed Andrews shortly thereafter, on December 21, 1918. The couple maintained residences in New York and traveled in , consistent with the lifestyles of affluent industrialists of the period who often supported multiple establishments during marital transitions.

Fatherhood and Ann Cooper Hewitt

Peter Cooper Hewitt had an extramarital affair with Marion Jeanne Andrews (also known as Maryon Andrews), beginning around 1913, which resulted in the birth of their daughter, Ann Cooper Hewitt, on July 31, 1914, in , . At the time of Ann's birth, Hewitt was married to his first wife, Lucy Bond Work, from whom he had no children; the union ended in divorce in 1918. Andrews, previously married and divorced, gave birth to Ann out of wedlock, rendering the child initially illegitimate under contemporary legal standards. Hewitt divorced Work and married Andrews on December 20, 1918, thereby legitimizing Ann under New York law, which recognized children born before a legitimizing as lawful heirs. The couple's union lasted until Hewitt's death on August 25, 1921, at age 60. In his will, executed prior to his passing, Hewitt directed that two-thirds of his approximately $4 million estate be allocated to Ann upon her reaching adulthood, with the remainder to Andrews, reflecting his intent to secure Ann's financial future through testamentary trusts managed by trustees. This provision underscored Hewitt's acknowledgment of paternity and commitment to Ann despite the circumstances of her birth, amid early 20th-century social stigma against illegitimacy in elite circles. Immediate family dynamics were strained by disputes over Ann's legitimacy following Hewitt's death. Extended Hewitt relatives, including siblings and cousins as beneficiaries of ancestral trusts from Hewitt's grandfather , challenged the 1918 marriage as void in 1923 Surrogate's Court proceedings, arguing procedural irregularities and prior marital impediments to Andrews, which would retroactively deem Ann illegitimate and disqualify her from . These contentions, rooted in contests over shared family trusts valued at hundreds of thousands, highlighted tensions between nuclear and extended family interests, presaging broader conflicts; however, a 1925 court ruling affirmed Ann's legitimacy and her entitlement to $250,000 from the estate.

Death and Immediate Aftermath

Circumstances of Death

Peter Cooper Hewitt died on August 25, 1921, in , , at the age of 60, from an attack of that developed following for abdominal complications. The operation had been performed earlier that month under the care of Dr. A. Warden, a noted specialist, but Hewitt's condition deteriorated rapidly due to the subsequent . Contemporary accounts from reported the death as a straightforward medical outcome during Hewitt's extended stay abroad, with no indications of foul play or external causes at the time. While Hewitt had engaged in extensive work involving mercury vapor and electrical experiments over decades, no verified medical evidence directly linked chronic exposures to the acute surgical and pulmonary issues precipitating his death. His body was later repatriated and interred at in , New York.

Estate and Inheritance Disputes

Peter Cooper Hewitt's will, executed prior to his death on August 25, 1921, distributed his estate—valued at over $4 million—primarily to his daughter Ann Cooper Hewitt, born in 1914, allocating two-thirds to her in trust and one-third to her mother, Maryon Jeanne Andrews (later Maryon Cooper Hewitt), whom Hewitt had married in 1918. The document explicitly legitimized Ann, who had been born prior to the , designating her as his "only surviving issue" and thus entitled to under its terms, while incorporating contingencies reflective of contemporary preoccupations with : Ann's trust provisions stipulated that her share would diminish or revert if she bore children deemed "unfit" for due to physical or mental incapacity, aiming to preserve family lineage and assets for capable descendants. Immediate challenges to the will emerged from Hewitt's siblings and other relatives, who contested Ann's legitimacy and entitlement, arguing that her birth out of wedlock invalidated her status despite the retroactive marriage, and seeking to declare the union void to redirect the estate among broader family heirs. These disputes intensified following Maryon Cooper Hewitt's remarriage in to Baron Anatole de Wahl d'Erlanger, which opponents cited as evidence of impropriety and grounds to question the original marriage's validity, potentially disqualifying both mother and daughter from full inheritance. New York Surrogate's Court rulings in the mid-1920s resolved key aspects in Ann's favor: a 1925 decision affirmed her legitimacy under the will, awarding her a specific $250,000 share outright, while upholding the trust structure for the remainder contingent on the heredity clauses, thereby rejecting relatives' claims and ensuring her primary status despite ongoing familial opposition. These outcomes underscored the era's legal emphasis on testamentary intent over strict illegitimacy bars, though the fitness provisions later fueled separate litigation, highlighting tensions between individual and inherited wealth preservation.

Legacy and Impact

Technological Advancements in Lighting

Peter Cooper Hewitt's , introduced in 1901, marked a pivotal shift in by employing gas discharge principles, achieving luminous efficiencies of approximately 2 to 3 times that of contemporary incandescent lamps, which typically operated at around 10-15 lumens per watt. This advancement stemmed from passing through mercury vapor under low pressure, producing high-intensity light with reduced energy waste as heat compared to filament-based incandescents. The lamp's design laid foundational technology for subsequent developments, notably serving as a precursor to fluorescent commercialized in the 1930s and by enabling ultraviolet excitation of phosphors for visible conversion, which boosted overall to 50-100 lumens per watt and facilitated widespread savings in commercial and industrial settings. Hewitt's innovation thus catalyzed a transition from inefficient incandescent dominance, supporting higher lumen outputs per watt and integrating into expanding networks for enhanced productivity. Beyond general illumination, the mercury-vapor lamp's strong advanced applications in sterilization and industry; by 1914, empirical tests demonstrated its efficacy in via UV rays, inactivating pathogens at rates suitable for large-scale units. Industrial deployments, including street lighting and high-bay factories, leveraged its 2-2.5 times greater light output relative to equivalent-power incandescents, aligning with early 20th-century gains in output through reliable, high-intensity illumination.

Criticisms and Limitations

The Cooper-Hewitt mercury vapor lamps emitted substantial (UV) radiation alongside visible light, exposing users to potential skin and eye damage during prolonged operation without adequate shielding. The vaporized mercury within the lamps also posed risks, with defective or malfunctioning units capable of leaking mercury vapor into enclosed spaces; documented incidents include a case where 26 individuals experienced ocular complications and other symptoms from exposure to a malfunctioning in a setting. Early adoption amplified these hazards due to rudimentary containment and ventilation in industrial environments. Technically, the lamps suffered from deficient color rendering, producing a bluish-green lacking sufficient wavelengths, which distorted human vision of colors and rendered objects—such as skin tones—unnaturally pallid or distorted, with a (CRI) as low as 20 in clear-bulb variants. Startup delays further limited practicality, requiring 4–7 minutes of warm-up to achieve full output after tilting the tube to initiate the arc, alongside dependency on heavy inductive ballasts for current regulation. Each lamp contained up to one pound of mercury, complicating handling and increasing breakage risks. Commercially, these complexities—coupled with the greenish hue's unappealing aesthetics—hindered widespread consumer and general illumination use, as simpler incandescent bulbs, refined by the 1910s, offered instant start and better color fidelity without specialized infrastructure. Adoption remained niche for street and factory lighting until phosphor coatings in later fluorescent derivatives mitigated spectral deficiencies, underscoring the original design's limitations in versatility and efficiency for everyday applications. Later environmental concerns over mercury disposal and atmospheric release from discarded units reinforced retrospective critiques, though these gained prominence post-1970s regulatory scrutiny.

Historical Reassessments

In contemporary evaluations, Peter Cooper Hewitt's invention of the mercury-vapor lamp in 1901 is recognized as a foundational step in gas-discharge lighting technology, earning him induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2011 for its role in enabling efficient ultraviolet and street lighting applications. His empirical experiments with electrified mercury in vacuum tubes demonstrated the conduction of electricity through rarefied gases, laying groundwork for principles later applied in vacuum-tube amplifiers and early plasma physics research. These efforts advanced causal insights into ionized gas behavior without reliance on theoretical speculation, prioritizing observable electrical arcs and vapor dynamics over contemporaneous incandescent alternatives. Reassessments also highlight practical limitations and , particularly the of mercury vapor, which modern environmental analyses link to risks from exposure and disposal; Hewitt's lamps, while pioneering, contributed to the proliferation of mercury in lighting until regulatory phase-outs in the late due to concerns. No significant new discoveries about his work have emerged, but historians contextualize his innovations within the era's industrial , noting how initial commercial hurdles—such as inefficient visible output—were overcome only through phosphors decades later, underscoring the empirical trial-and-error nature of his approach. Hewitt's family legacy endures through ties to the , founded by his grandfather, and the , established by his aunts Sarah and Eleanor Hewitt in 1897 to promote education. Posthumously, aspects of his personal life and lineage have faced scrutiny in examinations of early 20th-century practices, particularly surrounding inheritance disputes involving his daughter Ann after his 1921 death, though such critiques focus on societal norms rather than direct attribution to Hewitt himself. Overall, these evaluations affirm Hewitt as a pragmatic inventor whose plasma-related findings facilitated downstream technologies like fluorescent lighting, tempered by recognition of material hazards unforeseen in his time.

References

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