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Pramana
Pramana (Sanskrit: प्रमाण; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge". One of the core concepts in Indian epistemology, pramanas are one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.
While the number of pramanas varies widely from system to system, many ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and attaining to the truth. Three of these are almost universally accepted: perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), and "word" (śabda), meaning the testimony of past or present reliable experts. The other three pramanas are more contentious: comparison and analogy (upamāna); postulation or derivation from circumstances (arthāpatti); and non-perception, or proof from absence (anupalabdhi). Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence, and possibility of error.
The various schools of Indian philosophies vary on how many of these six pramanas are epistemically reliable and valid means to knowledge. For example, the Carvaka school of the Śramaṇa tradition holds that only one (perception) is a reliable source of knowledge, Buddhism holds that two (perception, inference) are valid means, Jainism holds three (perception, inference and testimony) as valid, and the Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hinduism hold that all six pramanas are useful and can be reliable means to knowledge. The various schools of Indian philosophy have debated whether one of the six forms of pramana can be derived from another and the relative uniqueness of each. For example, Buddhism considers Buddha and other "valid persons", "valid scriptures" and "valid minds" as indisputable, but that such testimony is a form of perception and inference pramanas.
Pramāṇa literally means "proof," based on the word pramā. The Sanskrit root pra (Sanskrit: प्र), is a preposition meaning "outward" or "forth", and mā (Sanskrit: मा) means "measurement." Pramā means "correct notion, true knowledge, basis, foundation, understand." Pramāṇa being a nominalization of the word, means that which is a "means of acquiring pramā or certain, correct, true knowledge".
Pramāṇa forms one part of a trio of concepts, which describe the ancient Indian view on how knowledge is gained. The other two concepts are pramātŗ, (Sanskrit: प्रमातृ, the subject, the knower) and prameya (Sanskrit: प्रमेय, the object, the knowable). They each influence the knowledge, by their own characteristic and the process of knowing.
In Buddhist literature, pramāṇa is referred to as pramāṇavāda. Pramāṇa is also related to the Indian concept of yukti (Sanskrit: युक्ति) which means active application of epistemology or what one already knows, innovation, clever expedients or connections, methodological or reasoning trick, joining together, application of contrivance, means, method, novelty or device to more efficiently achieve a purpose. yukti and pramāṇa are discussed together in some Indian texts, with yukti described as active process of gaining knowledge in contrast to passive process of gaining knowledge through observation/perception. The texts on pramana, particularly by Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hinduism, often include in their scope what might be termed "theories of errors"; that is, philosophies regarding the reason for human error, how one may know if one is wrong, and—if so—how one can discover whether one's epistemic method or conclusion was flawed, as well what one ought then do in order to correct it.
Hinduism identifies six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and to truths: Pratyakṣa (evidence/perception), Anumāna (inference), Upamāna (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), Anupalabdhi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
In verse 1.2.1 of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (c. 9th–6th centuries BCE), "four means of attaining correct knowledge" are listed: smṛti ("scripture, tradition"), pratyakṣa ("perception"), aitihya ("expert testimony, historical tradition"), and anumāna ("inference").
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Pramana
Pramana (Sanskrit: प्रमाण; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge". One of the core concepts in Indian epistemology, pramanas are one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. The focus of pramana is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not know, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.
While the number of pramanas varies widely from system to system, many ancient and medieval Indian texts identify six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and attaining to the truth. Three of these are almost universally accepted: perception (pratyakṣa), inference (anumāna), and "word" (śabda), meaning the testimony of past or present reliable experts. The other three pramanas are more contentious: comparison and analogy (upamāna); postulation or derivation from circumstances (arthāpatti); and non-perception, or proof from absence (anupalabdhi). Each of these are further categorized in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence, and possibility of error.
The various schools of Indian philosophies vary on how many of these six pramanas are epistemically reliable and valid means to knowledge. For example, the Carvaka school of the Śramaṇa tradition holds that only one (perception) is a reliable source of knowledge, Buddhism holds that two (perception, inference) are valid means, Jainism holds three (perception, inference and testimony) as valid, and the Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hinduism hold that all six pramanas are useful and can be reliable means to knowledge. The various schools of Indian philosophy have debated whether one of the six forms of pramana can be derived from another and the relative uniqueness of each. For example, Buddhism considers Buddha and other "valid persons", "valid scriptures" and "valid minds" as indisputable, but that such testimony is a form of perception and inference pramanas.
Pramāṇa literally means "proof," based on the word pramā. The Sanskrit root pra (Sanskrit: प्र), is a preposition meaning "outward" or "forth", and mā (Sanskrit: मा) means "measurement." Pramā means "correct notion, true knowledge, basis, foundation, understand." Pramāṇa being a nominalization of the word, means that which is a "means of acquiring pramā or certain, correct, true knowledge".
Pramāṇa forms one part of a trio of concepts, which describe the ancient Indian view on how knowledge is gained. The other two concepts are pramātŗ, (Sanskrit: प्रमातृ, the subject, the knower) and prameya (Sanskrit: प्रमेय, the object, the knowable). They each influence the knowledge, by their own characteristic and the process of knowing.
In Buddhist literature, pramāṇa is referred to as pramāṇavāda. Pramāṇa is also related to the Indian concept of yukti (Sanskrit: युक्ति) which means active application of epistemology or what one already knows, innovation, clever expedients or connections, methodological or reasoning trick, joining together, application of contrivance, means, method, novelty or device to more efficiently achieve a purpose. yukti and pramāṇa are discussed together in some Indian texts, with yukti described as active process of gaining knowledge in contrast to passive process of gaining knowledge through observation/perception. The texts on pramana, particularly by Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta schools of Hinduism, often include in their scope what might be termed "theories of errors"; that is, philosophies regarding the reason for human error, how one may know if one is wrong, and—if so—how one can discover whether one's epistemic method or conclusion was flawed, as well what one ought then do in order to correct it.
Hinduism identifies six pramanas as correct means of accurate knowledge and to truths: Pratyakṣa (evidence/perception), Anumāna (inference), Upamāna (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation from circumstances), Anupalabdhi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
In verse 1.2.1 of the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (c. 9th–6th centuries BCE), "four means of attaining correct knowledge" are listed: smṛti ("scripture, tradition"), pratyakṣa ("perception"), aitihya ("expert testimony, historical tradition"), and anumāna ("inference").