Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem

Melisende (c. 1109 – 11 September 1161) was the queen of Jerusalem from 1131 to 1152. She was the first female ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the first woman to hold a public office in the crusader kingdom. Her fame grew in her lifetime for her generous support of the various Christian communities in her kingdom. Contemporary chronicler William of Tyre praised her wisdom and abilities, while modern historians differ in their assessment.

Melisende was of mixed Frankish–Armenian heritage, the eldest daughter of King Baldwin II and Queen Morphia. In the late 1120s, when it became clear that her father would likely not have a son, she was declared heir presumptive to the throne and married Fulk of Anjou. Baldwin II died in 1131, having conferred the kingdom on Melisende, Fulk, and their son Baldwin III. Melisende and Fulk were crowned shortly after.

Early in their joint reign, King Fulk attempted to rule without Queen Melisende. Barons led by Melisende's kinsman Count Hugh II of Jaffa revolted and, although Hugh was defeated and exiled, Melisende grew powerful and terrorized the king and his supporters until he agreed to accord a share of the government to her. Once reconciled, they had another son, Amalric, and Fulk no longer made any decision in the kingdom without Melisende's assent. During their joint rule, Melisende managed Church relations and patronage. After Fulk died in 1143, Melisende assumed full power and was crowned together with their elder son, Baldwin III. Baldwin reached the age of majority in 1145, but Melisende refused to cede any authority to him. After the fall of Edessa in 1144, Melisende urged a military intervention from Europe, which led to the Second Crusade.

Melisende's relationship with Baldwin III collapsed in 1150 as she further reduced his role in state affairs. In 1152 the High Court divided the kingdom between mother and son. Within weeks, however, Baldwin invaded Melisende's portion and besieged her in the Tower of David. Melisende agreed to step down and retire to Nablus. She continued to involve herself in the affairs of her family, who also ruled the crusader states of Antioch and Tripoli. Although her influence in Jerusalem became limited, she counseled Baldwin and took a successful military initiative in his absence. Her patronage and involvement in ecclesiastical matters also continued. She died in 1161 after becoming incapacitated by an illness, possibly a stroke.

Melisende was the eldest daughter of the Frankish count of Edessa, Baldwin II, and Morphia of Melitene, an Armenian noblewoman of the Greek Orthodox faith. She was likely born in Edessa sometime between 1104 and 1109 or slightly later. Her mixed heritage reflected the ethnoreligious diversity of the Latin East. She and her sisters Alice and Hodierna would have grown up speaking Armenian and probably Greek, but also became proficient in French.

In early 1118 Melisende's father set out on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. During this journey the king of Jerusalem, Baldwin I, died. Baldwin II was elected to succeed him. His wife and daughters stayed in Edessa while he consolidated his position in the kingdom. In late 1119 Baldwin sent for his family, and the new count of Edessa, Baldwin's cousin Joscelin of Courtenay, arranged for them to be escorted south. The cultural setting of Jerusalem was a distinct departure from what Melisende had experienced growing up in Edessa: alongside the Franks, the city's population was largely Arabic- and Syriac-speaking. Melisende's parents were crowned king and queen on Christmas. They had another daughter, Ioveta, the following year.

Baldwin II was the first Latin ruler of Jerusalem to have children but all four of his children were daughters, and no conventions had yet developed in the crusader states regarding female succession. Baldwin and Morphia's marriage was happy despite there being no male heir to the kingdom. Michael, a contemporary Syriac Orthodox monk, credits Morphia with instilling "the fear of God" in Melisende, suggesting that she may have played a greater role than Baldwin in Melisende's spiritual upbringing. Like Baldwin I's wives Arda of Armenia and Adelaide del Vasto, Morphia took no part in the affairs of state. During the 18 months Baldwin spent in Muslim captivity in 1123-24, the kingdom was ruled first by the constable, Eustace I Grenier, and then by William of Bures, prince of Galilee; neither Melisende nor her mother were involved in government. The rulers of Jerusalem were expected not only to govern but to personally lead armies against near-constant threats from Muslim powers on the northern, eastern, and southern borders. This militarized model of kingship made female rule particularly problematic, as it clashed with entrenched expectations of a warrior-king.

Archbishop William of Tyre, the chief chronicler of the 12th-century kingdom, does not explicitly describe Melisende's appearance or education. He was only born in 1130, and from the death of Fulcher of Chartres in 1127 there was no resident chronicler in the crusader states. William was studying in Europe from 1145 to 1165 and only started writing his History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea in 1167. The intervening period is therefore poorly documented and frequently invites speculative interpretation by historians.