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Sepharose
Sepharose
Sepharose
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Sepharose is a tradename for a crosslinked, beaded-form of agarose, a polysaccharide polymer material extracted from seaweed. Its brand name is a portmanteau derived from Separation-Pharmacia-Agarose. A common application for the material is in chromatographic separations of biomolecules.

Sepharose is a registered trademark of Cytiva (formerly: GE Healthcare and Pharmacia, Pharmacia LKB Biotechnology, Pharmacia Biotech, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, and Amersham Biosciences).

Various grades and chemistries of sepharose are available.[1] Iodoacetyl functional groups can be added to selectively bind cysteine side chains and this method is often used to immobilize peptides. Sepharose/agarose, combined with some form of activation chemistry, is also used to immobilize enzymes, antibodies and other proteins and peptides through covalent attachment to the resin. Common activation chemistries include cyanogen bromide (CNBr) activation and reductive amination of aldehydes to attach proteins to the agarose resin through lysine side chains.

See also

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References

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Sepharose

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from Grokipedia
Sepharose is a trademarked family of cross-linked, beaded resins designed for chromatographic separations, particularly in and manufacturing. Introduced by Fine Chemicals in 1966 as an advancement over earlier dextran-based media like , Sepharose is composed of spherical particles derived from —a neutral extracted from red —cross-linked to provide enhanced mechanical rigidity, , and high flow rates under low pressure. Available in variants such as Sepharose 4B (4% , particle size 45–165 μm), Sepharose 6B (6% , smaller pore size for higher resolution), and cross-linked forms like Sepharose CL-4B for improved pressure tolerance, these resins offer tunable porosity to suit different molecular weight separations. Sepharose serves as a versatile base matrix in multiple chromatography techniques, including (gel filtration) for desalting and fractionation by molecular size, via covalent coupling of ligands like antibodies or metal ions for specific capture, and or hydrophobic interaction chromatography when functionalized with charged or hydrophobic groups. Renowned for their , low non-specific binding, and scalability from lab to , Sepharose resins have become a cornerstone in downstream bioprocessing, enabling high-yield purification of therapeutic proteins, vaccines, and enzymes while maintaining .

History and Development

Origins at Pharmacia

Pharmacia Fine Chemicals, a Swedish company based in Uppsala, pioneered gel filtration chromatography with the launch of Sephadex in 1959, a cross-linked dextran-based medium developed by biochemists Jerker Porath and Per Flodin. This innovation enabled efficient size-based separation of biomolecules but was limited by the relatively small pore sizes of dextran, which restricted its utility for fractionating large proteins, viruses, and other macromolecules exceeding several hundred thousand daltons. To address this limitation, researchers turned to , a neutral extracted from red (Rhodophyta), in the mid-1960s. Agarose offered the potential for larger pore structures due to its linear galactan chains, making it suitable for separating biomolecules with molecular weights above the exclusion limits of gels. Initial efforts focused on adapting agarose into a stable, beaded form for , drawing on foundational work such as Stellan Hjertén's 1964 description of an emulsion-based method to produce spherical agarose particles. Between 1964 and 1965, teams conducted experiments to optimize bead formation, involving heating solutions to dissolve the polymer, suspending the hot mixture in an immiscible oil phase to create droplets, and cooling to the spheres into beads typically 45–165 μm in diameter. These efforts included exploring mild cross-linking agents to enhance mechanical stability and reduce swelling under conditions, ensuring the beads maintained structural integrity during use. Internal testing demonstrated that the resulting matrix exhibited significantly improved porosity, allowing effective separation of large biomolecules with molecular weights up to several million daltons—far surpassing Sephadex's capabilities for high-molecular-weight species like viruses, large enzymes, and immunoglobulins. Pharmacia's first intellectual property filings for this agarose-based technology, including a trademark application for "Sepharose" on , 1965, laid the groundwork for its commercial introduction as an advanced gel filtration medium. This marked the transition from laboratory prototyping to broader application in purification.

Key Innovations and Milestones

Sepharose was first launched by in 1966 as a gel filtration medium composed of beads, marking a significant advancement in for separating biomolecules based on molecular size. In 1967, the development of activated forms, notably CNBr-Sepharose, enabled the application of by allowing covalent attachment of ligands to the matrix through primary amine groups, facilitating highly specific . This innovation was detailed in a seminal paper by Jerker Porath, Ragnar Axén, and Sven Ernback, which described the chemical coupling of proteins to using activation. During the 1970s, introduced cross-linked versions of Sepharose, designated as Sepharose CL (e.g., CL-2B, CL-4B, CL-6B), to enhance mechanical and , allowing operation under higher flow rates and pressures while maintaining selectivity for gel filtration and other chromatographic modes. In , Biosciences, which had acquired Biotech in 2001 and included the Sepharose product line, was acquired by , integrating it into a broader portfolio of life sciences tools and leading to further refinements in and application. A notable milestone under occurred in 2009 with the launch of Mag Sepharose beads, which incorporated magnetic properties into the agarose matrix for rapid, automation-friendly capture and in affinity-based separations, particularly for antibodies and recombinant proteins. In 2020, following Danaher Corporation's acquisition of GE Healthcare's life sciences business, the division was rebranded as Cytiva, continuing the evolution of Sepharose products with an emphasis on scalability and bioprocessing efficiency. Under Cytiva, as of 2025, Sepharose continues to be refined, with recommendations for transitioning to advanced resins like the Capto series for enhanced performance in .

Composition and Properties

Agarose Structure

Agarose, the primary component of Sepharose, is a linear polysaccharide derived from red seaweed of the phylum Rhodophyta, specifically from agarophytes such as species of Gelidium and Gracilaria. It consists of repeating units of agarobiose, a disaccharide composed of alternating β-D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-α-L-galactopyranose residues linked by β-1,4 and α-1,3 glycosidic bonds, respectively. This neutral, sulfation-free structure distinguishes agarose from the charged agaropectin fraction of agar, contributing to its inert nature in biochemical applications. The molecular weight of agarose typically ranges from 100,000 to 150,000 Da, corresponding to approximately 300–500 repeating units, which influences its and gelation behavior. Gel formation occurs through a thermo-reversible process where, upon cooling an , agarose chains associate into double helices stabilized by intermolecular hydrogen bonds, particularly involving hydroxyl groups on the units and molecules. These helices further aggregate into a three-dimensional network, creating a porous matrix without covalent cross-links. Agarose is extracted and purified from crude through processes such as alkaline treatment to remove proteins and sulfated , followed by precipitation or solvent extraction (e.g., using to separate from agaropectin), yielding high-purity grades with low content (<0.2%) suitable for chromatography. In Sepharose formulations, the concentration in the beads ranges from 2% to 6% by weight, balancing mechanical stability with permeability. These beads exhibit inherent properties including high porosity with pore sizes of 30–100 nm, which facilitate diffusion of biomolecules up to several hundred kilodaltons; excellent biocompatibility, as is non-immunogenic and supports cell viability; and minimal non-specific binding to proteins due to its hydrophilic, uncharged surface.

Bead Formation and Physical Characteristics

Sepharose beads are produced through inverse suspension gelation, in which a hot aqueous solution of is emulsified into a water-in-oil emulsion within a continuous oil phase, followed by cooling to induce gelation and form spherical beads. This process yields uniform, porous beads with diameters typically ranging from 45 to 165 μm, providing a high surface area suitable for chromatographic separations. The agarose concentration in the gel—commonly 2%, 4%, or 6%—determines the pore size and mechanical properties of the beads, with higher concentrations resulting in smaller pores and narrower fractionation ranges. For instance, Sepharose 4B, formulated at 4% agarose, offers a fractionation range of 60 kDa to 20 MDa for globular proteins, enabling effective size-based separations of biomolecules. To enhance rigidity and minimize excessive swelling in certain variants, the agarose matrix is cross-linked using agents such as epichlorohydrin, which forms covalent bridges between polysaccharide chains. This cross-linking improves the beads' resistance to deformation and maintains structural integrity during use. Physically, Sepharose beads exhibit a density of approximately 1.05 g/mL when swollen, closely matching that of aqueous buffers for efficient suspension and flow. They swell significantly upon hydration in buffers, increasing volume by up to several times the dry weight, though cross-linked variants show negligible further variation with changes in pH or ionic strength. Mechanically, standard Sepharose forms provide stability under moderate pressures, typically up to 3 bar, supporting reliable performance in low- to medium-throughput chromatography without significant compression.

Types and Variants

Standard and Cross-Linked Gels

Standard Sepharose gels are non-functionalized, beaded matrices composed of agarose with varying concentrations, primarily used for size-exclusion chromatography to separate biomolecules based on molecular size. These include Sepharose 2B (2% agarose), Sepharose 4B (4% agarose), and Sepharose 6B (6% agarose), each offering distinct fractionation ranges for globular proteins. The bead diameter for these standard gels typically ranges from 45 to 165 μm, enabling effective separation of large molecules such as proteins and polysaccharides.
VariantAgarose ContentFractionation Range (Globular Proteins, Da)Typical Use in Size-Exclusion
Sepharose 2B2%70,000 – 40,000,000Separation of very large macromolecules, e.g., viruses or high-molecular-weight dextrans
Sepharose 4B4%60,000 – 20,000,000General fractionation of proteins and nucleic acids up to multimers
Sepharose 6B6%10,000 – 4,000,000Resolution of medium-sized proteins and oligomers
Cross-linked variants, such as Sepharose CL-2B, CL-4B, and CL-6B, maintain the same agarose contents and fractionation ranges as their standard counterparts but incorporate divinyl sulfone cross-linking to enhance chemical and physical stability. This modification provides greater resistance to pressure, reducing bed compression during high-flow operations, and improves tolerance to oxidative agents like hypochlorite for cleaning. Additionally, cross-linked gels exhibit stability across a broad pH range (3–14) and in various aqueous and organic solvents, making them suitable for demanding purification workflows without significant volume changes. Fast Flow (FF) variants of Sepharose, such as Sepharose 4 Fast Flow and CL-6B Fast Flow, feature a highly cross-linked 4–6% agarose base matrix with optimized pore structures to support higher linear flow rates, typically up to 150 cm/h, while preserving resolution in size-exclusion applications. These matrices, with particle sizes around 90 μm, offer improved rigidity and minimal backpressure, facilitating faster processing of samples without compromising separation efficiency. Sepharose Big Beads represent a specialized cross-linked agarose variant with larger particle sizes of 100–300 μm, designed for large-scale size-exclusion chromatography of viscous or crude samples. The increased bead diameter reduces clogging and maintains high flow rates even under high viscosity conditions, enabling efficient handling of industrial-scale volumes while retaining the broad fractionation capabilities of 6% agarose matrices.

Functionalized and Specialized Forms

Sepharose can be functionalized through various activation chemistries that enable covalent attachment of ligands for specific affinity interactions. Cyanogen bromide (CNBr) activation targets primary amine groups on ligands, forming isourea bonds suitable for immobilizing proteins and peptides, though these bonds may exhibit some instability over time. N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) activation reacts with primary amines to produce stable amide linkages, offering a more robust coupling method particularly effective for smaller ligands and high-efficiency purifications under neutral pH conditions. Epoxy activation allows multipoint attachments via hydroxy, amino, or thiol groups on ligands, promoting oriented immobilization and enhanced stability, which is advantageous for carbohydrates and enzymes. Common ligands coupled to these activated Sepharose variants include Protein A and Protein G for antibody purification, where Protein A Sepharose typically achieves a binding capacity of approximately 20 mg human IgG per mL resin, facilitating high-yield isolation of monoclonal antibodies from complex mixtures. Glutathione-functionalized Sepharose is widely used for purifying GST-tagged proteins, with binding capacities exceeding 10 mg GST per mL, enabling efficient single-step recovery from bacterial lysates. For histidine-tagged proteins, Ni-NTA or Ni-chelating Sepharose provides strong coordination binding, supporting capacities up to 40 mg His-tagged protein per mL and compatibility with denaturing conditions. Specialized forms extend Sepharose's utility beyond standard chromatography. Magnetic Mag Sepharose, launched in 2009 by GE Healthcare (now Cytiva), incorporates iron oxide particles within agarose beads for rapid magnetic separation, ideal for pull-down assays and small-scale purifications without centrifugation. High-performance (HP) variants, such as NHS-activated Sepharose HP, feature smaller bead sizes (around 34 μm) optimized for fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC), delivering superior resolution and flow rates up to 150 cm/h. Epoxy- and thiol-activated Sepharose support custom ligand immobilization for tailored applications. Epoxy groups enable flexible coupling under mild alkaline conditions, while thiol activation, as in Activated Thiol Sepharose 4B, forms reversible disulfide bonds with sulfhydryl-containing molecules, allowing easy elution and resin reuse in biospecific purifications.

Applications

Role in Chromatography Techniques

Sepharose, an agarose-based matrix, is integral to chromatography techniques where its porous bead structure facilitates the separation of biomolecules by exploiting differences in size, affinity, charge, or hydrophobicity. In these methods, Sepharose columns are typically packed with beads of uniform size, equilibrated with appropriate buffers, and operated under controlled flow rates to ensure reproducible separations. Its chemical stability and low non-specific binding make it suitable for both analytical and preparative scales. In gel filtration, or size-exclusion chromatography, Sepharose enables separation based on molecular size, with larger molecules eluting first in the void volume as they are excluded from the pores, while smaller molecules penetrate the matrix and elute later. Standard variants like Sepharose 4B are used for molecules in the range of 60–20,000 kDa, with columns equilibrated in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at neutral pH to mimic physiological conditions and prevent unwanted interactions. This technique is particularly valuable for desalting, buffer exchange, and initial fractionation of complex mixtures. Affinity chromatography leverages Sepharose functionalized with specific ligands, such as antibodies or metal chelates, to achieve highly selective binding of target molecules through reversible biospecific interactions. The process involves loading the sample under binding conditions, washing away unbound components, and eluting the target with competitors that disrupt the ligand-target complex; for instance, in immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC), histidine-tagged proteins bind to nickel or cobalt ions on the Sepharose matrix and are released using imidazole gradients starting above 0.1 M. This method provides high purity in a single step due to its specificity. Ion-exchange chromatography with Sepharose variants separates biomolecules by net charge, using Q-Sepharose as a strong anion exchanger (quaternary ammonium groups) for negatively charged molecules and SP-Sepharose as a strong cation exchanger (sulfopropyl groups) for positively charged ones. Binding occurs at low ionic strength, followed by elution via increasing salt concentrations or pH gradients that alter the charge properties of the analytes, with operational pH ranges of 2–12 for Q-Sepharose and 4–13 for SP-Sepharose to optimize selectivity. Hydrophobic interaction chromatography employs phenyl-Sepharose, where aromatic phenyl groups on the matrix interact with hydrophobic regions of proteins under high-salt conditions, such as 1.7 M ammonium sulfate, to promote binding. Separation is achieved by gradually decreasing salt concentration through linear or stepwise gradients, reducing hydrophobic interactions and allowing elution in order of increasing hydrophobicity; this technique is effective for polishing steps following salt precipitation or ion-exchange.

Uses in Biomolecule Purification

Sepharose plays a pivotal role in affinity chromatography for antibody purification, particularly through Protein G Sepharose variants that exploit the high-affinity binding of Protein G to the Fc region of immunoglobulin G (IgG). In a typical protocol, serum samples are loaded onto a HiTrap Protein G HP column equilibrated in phosphate-buffered saline (pH 7.0), allowing selective capture of IgG while other serum proteins flow through. Elution is achieved with a low-pH glycine-HCl buffer (pH 2.7), followed by immediate neutralization to preserve antibody integrity. This method routinely yields IgG with greater than 95% purity, as verified by SDS-PAGE analysis showing minimal contamination from albumin or other serum components. Such high-purity outcomes enable downstream applications like immunoassay development and therapeutic production from mammalian sources. For recombinant protein isolation, GST-Sepharose is widely employed to purify glutathione S-transferase (GST) fusion proteins expressed in bacterial systems, leveraging the specific interaction between GST and immobilized glutathione. Cell lysates are incubated with Glutathione Sepharose 4B beads in binding buffer (PBS, pH 7.3), followed by extensive washing to remove unbound material, and elution with reduced glutathione (10 mM in Tris-HCl, pH 8.0). To obtain the native protein, on-column or off-column cleavage with thrombin protease is performed; for instance, after binding, the column is equilibrated in cleavage buffer, thrombin (10 units per mg fusion protein) is added, and incubation at 22–25°C for 2–16 hours releases the target protein while the GST tag remains bound. This approach achieves high recovery of soluble recombinant proteins, often exceeding 80% of the expressed fusion, with the cleaved product separable via a secondary pass over the resin. In plasmid DNA preparation, anion-exchange resins like Q-Sepharose facilitate large-scale purification by separating supercoiled plasmid from genomic DNA, RNA, and endotoxins based on charge differences. Alkaline-lysed bacterial lysates are clarified and loaded onto a HiLoad Q Sepharose column in low-salt buffer (e.g., 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0), with unbound impurities washed away using a step gradient to 0.5 M NaCl; plasmid is then eluted at 1.0 M NaCl. This fast protein liquid chromatography process supports gram-scale productions, yielding plasmid DNA comparable in quantity and quality to cesium chloride ultracentrifugation, with recoveries typically around 60–80% and endotoxin levels below 0.1 EU/μg for vaccine and gene therapy applications. Enzyme immobilization using CNBr-activated Sepharose enables covalent attachment via primary amines, creating stable biosensors and biocatalysts with retained functionality. Enzymes such as amylases or lipases are coupled to the activated beads in coupling buffer (0.1 M NaHCO3, pH 8.3) for 2 hours at room temperature, followed by blocking with ethanolamine to quench excess groups. This orientation often preserves 70–80% of the free enzyme's activity, as demonstrated with alkaline phosphatase where immobilized forms maintained catalytic efficiency in repeated assays for biosensor detection of substrates like glucose. The method's mild conditions minimize denaturation, supporting operational stability in flow-through devices over multiple cycles.

Manufacturing and Commercial Use

Production Methods

Sepharose beads are produced starting with the purification of agarose from red algae such as Gelidium or Gracilaria species. The extraction process begins with alkaline treatment of the dried seaweed to hydrolyze and desulfate the agar, converting L-galactose-6-sulfate residues to 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose and reducing sulfate content to below 0.3% for improved gelling properties. This is followed by hot water extraction at 80–100°C, filtration to remove debris, and fractional precipitation using solvents like ethanol or polyethylene glycol to isolate neutral agarose from charged agaropectin. Further purification involves ion-exchange chromatography or hydrogen peroxide treatment (e.g., 2% H₂O₂ at pH 9.0 and 40°C for 2 hours) to achieve high purity, with the final agarose dried under vacuum at 50–60°C or freeze-dried after acetone washing. Bead formation involves dissolving the purified agarose (typically 4–6% w/v) in water at 85–95°C to form a viscous solution, which is then emulsified in a hydrophobic oil phase (e.g., mineral oil or toluene) containing a surfactant like Span 80 or 85 (0.1–1.35%) under high shear stirring (2000–3500 rpm) to generate uniform droplets of 40–300 μm diameter. The emulsion is cooled below the gelling point (around 35–40°C) to solidify the droplets into porous beads, with ionic strength (e.g., 0–0.1 M NaCl) and cooling rate influencing pore size (30–200 nm). Cross-linking follows using bifunctional agents like epichlorohydrin or allylglycidyl ether (30–80 μmol/g agarose) in alkaline conditions (0.4 M NaOH at 40–70°C for 2–16 hours) to enhance mechanical stability and rigidity while preserving porosity; sieving then separates beads by size for uniformity. Functionalization of Sepharose beads typically employs cyanogen bromide (CNBr) activation, where the beads are swollen in buffer and reacted with CNBr (100–200 mg/mL) in the presence of triethylamine at pH 10.5–11 and 20–25°C for 5–10 minutes to form reactive cyanate esters on hydroxyl groups. Ligands such as proteins or antibodies are then coupled via primary amines in a batch process at pH 7–8.5 and 4–25°C for 2–16 hours, achieving densities of 1–5 mg ligand per mL settled beads (e.g., ~3 mg protein A/mL). Unreacted groups are blocked with ethanolamine or glycine (0.1–1 M at pH 8–9) to minimize non-specific binding, followed by extensive washing with buffers at varying pH and ionic strengths. Quality control ensures bead integrity and performance through several assays. Swelling tests measure hydration capacity by comparing dry and settled volumes after buffer incubation (e.g., 4–6 mL/g in phosphate buffer), confirming consistent pore structure influenced by cross-linking degree. Particle size uniformity is verified by microscopy or laser diffraction, targeting narrow distributions (e.g., 40–160 μm with SD <50 μm) post-sieving. Pressure-flow properties are evaluated using packed bed columns (15–20 cm height) at flow rates of 100–300 cm/h under 1 bar pressure, assessing backpressure and permeability to ensure low resistance for large-scale use. Ligand activity is quantified via binding capacity assays, such as static or dynamic IgG adsorption (e.g., 20–35 mg human IgG/mL for Protein A Sepharose), confirming >80–90% functionality through and analysis.

Current Availability and Suppliers

Sepharose products are primarily supplied by Cytiva, the rebranded entity formerly known as Life Sciences, following its acquisition by in March 2020 for $21.4 billion. As a standalone operating company within Danaher's Life Sciences segment, Cytiva distributes Sepharose resins globally through its website and authorized distributors, emphasizing bioprocessing applications in research, development, and manufacturing. Cytiva's Sepharose product lines include versatile formats such as HiScale columns, which are empty, easy-to-pack systems designed for medium- to high-pressure up to 20 bar, facilitating scalable purification workflows. Prepacked options like HisTrap columns, filled with Ni Sepharose High Performance resin, support automated systems for high-resolution purification of histidine-tagged proteins via immobilized metal . Sepharose resins are available in lab-scale packs ranging from 25 mL to 5 L, ideal for benchtop and pilot-scale experiments, and in industrial bulk formats up to 60 L or larger for production-scale operations, with stock levels varying by variant and often fulfilled on request for high volumes. Pricing trends reflect , with smaller lab packs commanding higher per-liter costs; for instance, SP Sepharose Fast Flow is offered at $111 for 25 mL (approximately $4,440/L) and $645 for 300 mL (approximately $2,150/L), while bulk quantities like 5 L or 10 L are priced on request, typically in the $200–$500/L range for standard variants to support cost-effective large-scale use. With original patents for Sepharose technology, developed by in the , long expired, the market features generic alternatives including Separopore agarose beads from bioWORLD, which serve as cost-effective equivalents with comparable physical properties and binding characteristics, and crosslinked agarose resins from suppliers like GoldBio and Biotech's PureCube matrices, optimized for high flow rates and pressure stability. Despite these options, Cytiva dominates the branded Sepharose market through its extensive portfolio, regulatory compliance, and integrated support for biopharmaceutical processes.

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  72. https://www.cytivalifesciences.com/en/us/products/items/sp-sepharose-fast-flow-cation-exchange-chromatography-resin-p-02514
  73. https://www.cytivalifesciences.com/en/us/shop/chromatography/resins/size-exclusion/sepharose-4-fast-flow-p-05600
  74. https://www.bio-world.com/separopore-agarose-beads/epoxyactivated-separoporereg-6bcl-p-20181064
  75. https://cube-biotech.com/our-science/protein-purification/agarose-resins/
  76. https://www.goldbio.com/products/6-agarose-beads-standard-crosslinked
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