Stokes wave

In fluid dynamics, a Stokes wave is a nonlinear and periodic surface wave on an inviscid fluid layer of constant mean depth. This type of modelling has its origins in the mid 19th century when Sir George Stokes – using a perturbation series approach, now known as the Stokes expansion – obtained approximate solutions for nonlinear wave motion.

Stokes's wave theory is of direct practical use for waves on intermediate and deep water. It is used in the design of coastal and offshore structures, in order to determine the wave kinematics (free surface elevation and flow velocities). The wave kinematics are subsequently needed in the design process to determine the wave loads on a structure. For long waves (as compared to depth) – and using only a few terms in the Stokes expansion – its applicability is limited to waves of small amplitude. In such shallow water, a cnoidal wave theory often provides better periodic-wave approximations.

While, in the strict sense, Stokes wave refers to a progressive periodic wave of permanent form, the term is also used in connection with standing waves and even random waves.

The examples below describe Stokes waves under the action of gravity (without surface tension effects) in case of pure wave motion, so without an ambient mean current.

According to Stokes's third-order theory, the free surface elevation η, the velocity potential Φ, the phase speed (or celerity) c and the wave phase θ are, for a progressive surface gravity wave on deep water – i.e. the fluid layer has infinite depth: $${\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\eta (x,t)=&a\left\{\left[1-{\tfrac {1}{16}}(ka)^{2}\right]\cos \theta +{\tfrac {1}{2}}(ka)\,\cos 2\theta +{\tfrac {3}{8}}(ka)^{2}\,\cos 3\theta \right\}+{\mathcal {O}}\left((ka)^{4}\right),\\\Phi (x,z,t)=&a{\sqrt {\frac {g}{k}}}\,{\text{e}}^{kz}\,\sin \theta +{\mathcal {O}}\left((ka)^{4}\right),\\c=&{\frac {\omega }{k}}=\left(1+{\tfrac {1}{2}}(ka)^{2}\right)\,{\sqrt {\frac {g}{k}}}+{\mathcal {O}}\left((ka)^{4}\right),{\text{ and}}\\\theta (x,t)=&kx-\omega t,\end{aligned}}}$$ where

The expansion parameter ka is known as the wave steepness. The phase speed increases with increasing nonlinearity ka of the waves. The wave height H, being the difference between the surface elevation η at a crest and a trough, is: $${\displaystyle H=2a\,\left(1+{\tfrac {3}{8}}\,k^{2}a^{2}\right).}$$

Note that the second- and third-order terms in the velocity potential Φ are zero. Only at fourth order do contributions deviating from first-order theory – i.e. Airy wave theory – appear. Up to third order the orbital velocity field u = ∇Φ consists of a circular motion of the velocity vector at each position (x,z). As a result, the surface elevation of deep-water waves is to a good approximation trochoidal, as already noted by Stokes (1847).

Stokes further observed, that although (in this Eulerian description) the third-order orbital velocity field consists of a circular motion at each point, the Lagrangian paths of fluid parcels are not closed circles. This is due to the reduction of the velocity amplitude at increasing depth below the surface. This Lagrangian drift of the fluid parcels is known as the Stokes drift.