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Thomas Conway
Thomas Conway
Thomas Conway
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Thomas Conway (February 27, 1735 – March 1795) was an Irish-born army officer and colonial administrator who served as the governor of French India from 1787 to 1789. Over the course of his military career, he served in the French Royal Army, Continental Army and British Army and fought in the American Revolutionary War and the French Revolutionary Wars. During the American Revolutionary War, Conway was involved with the alleged Conway Cabal with Horatio Gates, resulting in his dismissal from the Continental Army.[1]

Key Information

Early life

[edit]

Thomas Conway was born in County Kerry, Ireland to James Conway and his wife Julieanne Conway.[2] Though born to a Catholic family, it is unclear how closely he adhered to the faith.[3][4] As a child, he immigrated to France with his parents. At the age of 14, he joined the French Royal Army's Irish Brigade and rose to the rank of colonel by 1772.[5]

Arrival in America

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Following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War he went to the Thirteen Colonies and volunteered to join to the Continental Congress for military service in 1777. Based on an introduction from Silas Deane, Congress appointed him as a brigadier general in the Continental Army on May 13, and sent him on to George Washington.

Conway commanded the leading brigade on the American right flank at the Battle of Germantown, and was praised for his actions. However, Washington opposed his promotion to major general, believing that many American-born officers with longer and valuable service deserved the rank; this caused a falling out between Washington and Conway. Congress appointed Conway a major general despite Washington's objections in December 1777, and made him Inspector General of the American army.

Conway Cabal

[edit]
Main article: Conway Cabal

When his name was used politically, it was used to describe the infighting known as the Conway Cabal. During the affair, he had written a letter to Horatio Gates in which he referred to Washington as a "weak general," criticizing General Washington's failed tactics against British General William Howe.[6] The letter stated: "Heaven has been determined to save your country; or a weak general [George Washington] and bad counselors would have ruined it."[7] The letter was intercepted by Washington and his backers after its delivery was botched by Brigadier-General James Wilkinson, and brought before the Congress for inquiry. When the contents of the letter were made public, Conway lost his command as a result. He tried a ploy that had worked before his promotion, and submitted his resignation to Congress in March 1778. This time it was accepted, so he was forced to leave the Continental Army.

Shortly after this, General John Cadwalader challenged Conway to a duel. Cadwalader was a supporter of Washington's who had been with him at Valley Forge, and was angered by Conway's disloyal conduct. The duel was fought with pistols on July 4, 1778.[8] At a distance of 12 paces, Conway fired first and missed. Cadwalader's shot struck Conway in the mouth and passed through the back of his head.[9] Cadwalader, regarding Conway lying on the ground in agony, supposedly observed: "I have stopped the damned rascal's lying anyway."[10][11]

Conway miraculously survived his wound. When he was not expecting to live, Conway penned a letter of apology to Washington, which read as follows:

Dear Sir: I find myself just able to hold my pen during a few minutes, and take this opportunity of expressing my sincere grief for having done, written, or said anything disagreeable to your Excellency. My career will soon be over; therefore, justice and truth prompt me to declare my last sentiments. You are in my eyes the great and good man. May you long enjoy the love, esteem, and veneration of these States, whose liberties you have asserted by your virtues.[11]

Later life

[edit]

Conway later returned to the French army, where in 1787 he was promoted to maréchal de camp and appointed as the governor of French India. In 1793 he fought with royalist forces in opposition to French Revolution in southern France. During the French Revolution he was condemned to death. He was saved only by an appeal to the British (against which he had fought in the American Revolutionary War), but was compelled to flee from France for his life.[10]

Having been aided by the British government, in 1794 Conway was named colonel of one of the six regiments of the British Army's Catholic Irish Brigade, formed by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger. Although people in positions of authority remained impressed with his military accomplishments, he continued to suffer from ill health. He visited Bath, Somerset on several occasions in the hopes of improving his health; the Bath Chronicle recorded his arrival for the final time on February 12, 1795.[12] He died soon after and was interred in Bath Abbey on March 3; the exact location of his memorial is unknown due to major renovations conducted in the 1860s.[1]

Conway was survived by his wife, Francois Antoinette Langlois du Bouchet who was created the Contesse de Conway, whom he married on June 1, 1775 and had a daughter the following year, on July 12, 1776, named Caroline. The Countess lived until 1828 and as a widow of a British Army colonel she continued to receive a government pension.[1]

References

[edit]
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Thomas Conway

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Thomas Conway (c. 1733 – 1800) was an Irish-born soldier of fortune who served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Raised in France after his family's emigration, Conway pursued a military career there, including service under Frederick the Great of Prussia, before being recruited by American commissioner Silas Deane to aid the Patriot cause. Commissioned as a colonel upon his arrival in 1777, he participated in battles such as Brandywine and Germantown, earning promotion to brigadier general and later inspector general with major general rank. Conway's tenure became defined by his central role in the , a factional intrigue in late 1777 and early 1778 involving officers like and members of who sought to supplant as commander-in-chief due to dissatisfaction with his leadership amid setbacks like the . The plot gained notoriety after Conway penned a letter to Gates deeming Washington unfit to lead and predicting military ruin under him; intercepted and forwarded to Washington, the missive exposed the scheme, provoking outrage and Conway's defensive correspondence. Facing reprimands and loss of confidence, Conway resigned his commission in 1778, though he briefly returned to service before departing for , where he advocated for American interests and later engaged in Irish revolutionary circles. His actions underscored tensions within the revolutionary leadership, highlighting ambitions and rivalries that tested Washington's command but ultimately reinforced his position. Conway died in , his legacy overshadowed by the failed cabal bearing his name.

Early Life and European Career

Birth and Origins

Thomas Conway was born on 27 February 1733 in Templenoe, near Nedeen, , . He was the elder son of James Conway, an Irish Jacobite officer serving in the , and belonged to a lineage of Irish military exiles known as the "Wild Geese," who had fled to following the War and subsequent penal laws restricting Catholic opportunities in . At the age of six, Conway was taken by his family, where he received his amid the Irish diaspora community in French military circles. This early relocation immersed him in French culture and the Bourbon military tradition, shaping his subsequent career as an officer in the French service rather than returning to . His grandfather and father had similarly pursued opportunities in the , reflecting a pattern of Irish Catholic gentry seeking advancement abroad due to religious and political exclusion at home.

Service in the French Army

Thomas Conway, born on 27 February 1733 in Cloghane, County Kerry, Ireland, to a Catholic family affected by the Penal Laws, emigrated to France at age six with his family, where his father and grandfather had previously served as officers in the French military. He entered French service on 16 December 1747 as a lieutenant en second in the Irish Régiment de Clare, a unit composed of Irish exiles loyal to the French crown, reflecting the tradition of Irish Catholic soldiers seeking opportunities abroad amid religious and political restrictions in Ireland. During the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), Conway participated in defensive operations, including garrison duty at in August 1758 amid a British raid, combat in in 1760, and winter quarters garrisoning in 1761; these engagements underscored the risks for British subjects in French service, who faced execution if captured by British forces. Post-war, he advanced steadily: promoted to captain on 25 March 1765, major on 9 July 1769 in the Régiment d'Aquitaine, and colonel on 9 November 1772, while also receiving the for distinguished service. By 1772, as colonel, Conway had accumulated over two decades of experience in the , primarily through routine regimental duties and limited combat exposure rather than high-command roles. Conway departed on 14 December 1776, motivated by prospects for further advancement amid the , leaving behind a career marked by loyalty to the but without notable independent commands or decisive battlefield victories in French service.

Arrival and Service in the American Revolution

Commissioning and Initial Engagements

Conway departed France on December 14, 1776, carrying a letter of introduction from Silas Deane, and arrived in Philadelphia in the spring of 1777. Upon his arrival, he presented credentials as a colonel in the French service and sought a commission in the Continental Army. The Continental Congress, impressed by his military experience, commissioned him as a brigadier general on May 13, 1777, and directed him to join the main army under George Washington. Conway assumed command of a in Lord Stirling's division, consisting primarily of troops. His initial major engagement occurred at the on September 11, 1777, where his exchanged volleys with British grenadiers in the flanking column under Sir William Howe, holding their position amid the American defeat. General John Sullivan praised Conway's performance, noting improved discipline and regulations in his compared to others. Conway next participated in the on October 4, 1777, again under Sullivan's division, though the assault faltered due to fog and coordination issues, resulting in another American setback. His troops demonstrated steadiness in these actions, which highlighted his organizational skills and contributed to his reputation for battlefield competence among some officers. These engagements preceded the British capture of and positioned Conway for subsequent roles in the Continental Army.

Promotion to Inspector General

In late 1777, following his involvement in the failed defense of Forts Mercer and Mifflin on the , Thomas Conway submitted his resignation to the Continental Congress, citing personal dissatisfaction with his contributions to the American cause. Congress declined to accept the resignation, viewing Conway's experience in European military discipline as valuable amid the Continental Army's organizational challenges after defeats at Brandywine and Germantown. On December 13, 1777, promoted Conway to the rank of —over the heads of twenty-three more senior American officers—and simultaneously appointed him to the newly created position of of the Continental Army. This dual advancement elevated Conway to oversee army-wide inspections, training standards, equipment issuance, and disciplinary enforcement, roles intended to professionalize the forces encamped at under George Washington's command. The promotion reflected Congress's preference for foreign officers with presumed expertise in drill and logistics, despite Washington's prior reservations about Conway's tactical judgment expressed after the operations. Washington acknowledged the appointment in correspondence with Conway on December 30, 1777, noting it had not produced universal satisfaction among officers, who perceived it as favoritism toward a recent arrival lacking deep investment in the revolutionary struggle. Conway arrived at shortly thereafter to assume duties, but his implementation of inspections revealed tensions, as his prescriptive approach clashed with Washington's emphasis on adaptive leadership amid supply shortages and morale issues. The role's inception marked an early experiment in centralized oversight, predating Baron von Steuben's more celebrated reforms, though Conway's tenure lasted only weeks before escalating intrigues led to his departure.

The Conway Cabal

Background and Key Correspondence


Following the American defeats at Brandywine on September 11, 1777, and Germantown on October 4, 1777, discontent grew within the Continental Congress and military regarding General George Washington's leadership, exacerbated by supply shortages and the British occupation of Philadelphia. Concurrently, Major General Horatio Gates achieved a decisive victory at Saratoga on October 17, 1777, capturing British General John Burgoyne's army, which elevated Gates' reputation and fueled speculation about replacing Washington. Brigadier General Thomas Conway, recently appointed Inspector General of the Continental Army on October 14, 1777, despite Washington's reservations about his qualifications and temperament, began advocating for military reforms and subtly criticizing Washington's command. Conway's ambitions for higher rank, including lobbying Congress for promotion to major general, positioned him as a vocal proponent of change amid these tensions. The pivotal correspondence began in late October 1777 when Conway wrote to Gates from , congratulating him on Saratoga and expressing pessimism about the main army's prospects under Washington. In the letter, dated around October 9 or 10, Conway stated: "Heaven has been determined to save your Country; or a weak General and bad Counsellors would have ruined it." This missive, intended privately, was relayed through Gates' James , who shared its contents with Lord Stirling, who in turn informed Washington on November 4, 1777. Washington immediately wrote to Gates that day, quoting the critical passage and expressing concern over such sentiments from a high-ranking , thereby alerting Gates to the leak without accusing him of . On November 5, 1777, Washington directly confronted Conway with a letter referencing the same quoted text from the Gates correspondence, demanding clarification on Conway's views of his generalship. Conway responded defensively on the same day, denying any intent to undermine Washington and attributing the letter's tone to frustration over recent defeats, while insisting his criticisms were aimed at counselors rather than Washington personally. These exchanges, though not evidencing a formalized plot, highlighted underlying factionalism and Conway's role in amplifying doubts about Washington's efficacy, setting the stage for broader political maneuvering in and the army during the Valley Forge encampment. Historians note that while the letters fueled perceptions of intrigue, primary evidence remains limited to such documented communications rather than coordinated schemes.

Exposure, Resignation, and Duel

The exposure of the began in late October 1777 when Major , aide to , drunkenly revealed details of a letter from Thomas Conway to Gates that criticized as a "weak general." The information reached Washington through Lord Stirling by early November, prompting a confrontation where Conway denied the exact phrasing but admitted to critiquing Washington's capabilities influenced by poor advisors. On November 14, 1777, Conway offered his resignation to , citing Washington's rebuff and perceived slights, but it was rejected as Congress instead affirmed his role as . Further tensions escalated after Conway's arrival at on December 29, 1777, where he faced Washington's cold reception, and the Cabal's collapse in January 1778 when Conway and Gates failed to satisfy with explanations. On April 22, 1778, Conway submitted a second resignation to the Continental , intending it as a bluff similar to his first attempt, but to his surprise, it was accepted, ending his American effective July 4, 1778. This outcome humiliated Conway, who had anticipated rejection and reinstatement. On July 4, 1778—the same day his resignation took effect—Conway dueled Brigadier General John Cadwalader near , who had challenged him for slandering Washington. Conway fired first and missed, after which Cadwalader shot him through the cheek, inflicting a severe but non-fatal wound. Believing himself mortally injured, Conway dictated an apology to Washington, expressing regret for his actions and affirming loyalty to the cause before recovering and departing for .

Historical Interpretations and Debates

Historians have long debated the nature and extent of the , with interpretations ranging from a coordinated conspiracy to oust to a loosely organized expression of dissatisfaction amplified by Washington's supporters. Early accounts, such as Jared Sparks' 1837 analysis, found no of a "fixed design" among critics, portraying it as fragmented discontent rather than a unified plot. Later scholars like Don Higginbotham reinforced this view, labeling the Cabal a "" absent compelling new primary , emphasizing instead post-Saratoga (October 17, 1777) frustrations over Washington's losses at Brandywine (September 11, 1777) and Germantown (October 4, 1777). A counterperspective, advanced by historians like , depicts Conway as the intellectual force behind a deliberate scheme, with as a figurehead and as an unwitting informant whose letter leak on November 4, 1777, exposed the intrigue. Beveridge argued the plot nearly succeeded in displacing Washington, drawing on Conway's November 1777 correspondence to Gates decrying Washington as "absolutely unfit to conduct our army" and lamenting the absence of a singular victorious general. In contrast, John C. Fitzpatrick suggested Washington perceived primarily personal ambitions—Conway's rapid promotion to on December 14, 1777, despite limited service—rather than a full-scale cabal, highlighting Washington's restraint in avoiding overreaction. More recent scholarship, including Mark Edward Lender's 2019 examination, reframes the episode as a viable political threat intertwined with the Continental Board's reform efforts, where Conway's inspectorate role (established October 1777) clashed with Washington's command, testing civilian-military boundaries without necessitating a formal replacement plot. Critics like Bernhard Knollenberg have questioned Washington's hypersensitivity, attributing the Cabal's narrative to his aides' amplification to bolster his indispensability, as evidenced by Lafayette's later affirmation of Washington's irreplaceability. These debates persist due to ambiguous primary sources, such as the disputed "weak general" phrasing in Conway's letter—possibly misreported by Henry Laurens—and the lack of direct congressional records endorsing Gates' elevation, underscoring tensions between ambition, wartime exigency, and loyalty.

Later Career and Death

Return to France and Military Roles

Following his resignation from the Continental Army in April 1778 and recovery from severe wounds inflicted during a with John Cadwalader on July 4, 1778, Thomas Conway departed the and returned to France by late 1778 or early 1779, resuming service in the . Upon rejoining, Conway was assigned to the , where he received appointment as aide-major général on July 1, 1779. On March 1, 1780, he was promoted to of infantry. The following year, on March 3, 1781, Conway assumed command as colonel of the Pondichéry Regiment, a unit associated with French colonial forces in . Conway's advancements continued with his promotion to maréchal de camp—equivalent to —on January 1, 1784, reflecting steady recognition within the pre-revolutionary French hierarchy despite his earlier American interlude. These roles positioned him for subsequent colonial responsibilities, amid the broader context of France's involvement in global conflicts following the 1780 against Britain by the United Provinces, though specific combat engagements under his command during this period remain sparsely documented.

Governorship of French India

In 1787, Thomas Conway received promotion to maréchal de camp and was appointed governor of , the principal settlement in , with authority extending to all French possessions on the subcontinent, including Chandernagor and . This followed his earlier command of the Pondicherry Regiment since 1781 and his designation as of French forces in on 9 March 1787. His responsibilities encompassed military defense, colonial administration, and trade oversight amid competition from British and Dutch interests, during a period of relative stability post the 1783 Treaty of Paris. On 14 April 1789, his remit expanded to of all French forces beyond the , incorporating oversight of Île de France () and other holdings. Conway's administration emphasized maintaining equilibrium with neighboring European powers; he cultivated cordial relations with British counterparts, including Governor-General Cornwallis, avoiding escalation despite underlying rivalries over trade routes and territorial enclaves. In 1788, he explored supporting republican factions in settlements, reflecting his alignment with emerging liberal sentiments in , though this initiative did not materialize into open conflict. Local accounts portrayed him as energetic but contentious, with one trader decrying his "anxious, violent and awful" demeanor and advocating for his recall amid administrative frictions. The onset of the in 1789 disrupted colonial governance; revolutionary fervor reached , where an Assembly of Citizens formed and challenged royal authority, leading to power seizures by local Jacobin sympathizers. Conway's tenure ended amid this turmoil, exacerbated by the November 1790 assassination of Count McNamara, a key ally, which prompted his departure from shortly thereafter. He relinquished formal service on 29 1790, though some records indicate lingering influence until his return to France around 1793, as revolutionary commissioners assumed control of the settlements.

Final Years and Death

Following his tenure as governor of , Conway returned to France amid the escalating . His royalist sympathies placed him at odds with the revolutionary government, resulting in the loss of his military positions and pension by 1793. He fled to that year to evade , entering alongside other opponents of the regime. In , Conway resided primarily in , where he lived modestly without regaining significant employment or influence. He died there on February 26, 1795, at the age of 59 or 60. His body was interred in on March 3, 1795, though the precise location of his grave became obscured following 19th-century renovations to the abbey. No records indicate he remarried or had surviving children after his earlier life in .

References

  1. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/biographies/thomas-conway
  2. https://allthingsliberty.com/2018/10/general-thomas-conway-cabal-conspirator-or-career-climber/
  3. https://www.mountvernon.org/library/digitalhistory/digital-encyclopedia/article/conway-cabal
  4. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/conway-cabal
  5. https://www.americanheritage.com/conway-cabal
  6. https://www.dib.ie/biography/conway-thomas-a1988
  7. https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/conway-thomas
  8. https://www.facebook.com/americanbattlefieldtrust/posts/the-continental-congress-in-philadelphia-awarded-thomas-conway-a-brigadier-gener/832112738963452/
  9. https://www.mountvernon.org/george-washington/the-revolutionary-war/washingtons-revolutionary-war-battles/the-battle-of-brandywine
  10. https://www.ushistory.org/march/other/cabal.htm
  11. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/november-4/washington-learns-of-conway-cabal
  12. https://www.americanhistorycentral.com/entries/thomas-conway/
  13. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-13-02-0040
  14. https://www.loc.gov/collections/george-washington-papers/articles-and-essays/timeline/the-american-revolution/
  15. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-13-02-0061
  16. https://history.army.mil/portals/143/Images/Publications/catalog/70-16.pdf
  17. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0119
  18. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-13-02-0113
  19. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/03-12-02-0118
  20. https://www.ushistory.org/march/other/cabal2.htm
  21. https://allthingsliberty.com/2019/07/cabal-the-plot-against-general-washington/
  22. https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/43024678/thomas-conway
  23. https://www.wikitree.com/wiki/Conway-886
  24. https://h-france.net/rude/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/05-SUBRAHMANYAM.pdf
  25. https://www.libraryireland.com/biography/ThomasConway.php
  26. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Conway
  27. https://qcurtius.com/2023/12/02/the-duel-of-conway-and-cadwalader/
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