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Track (disk drive)

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Find sources: "Track" disk drive – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2025)

Figure 1. Disk structures:
(A) Track
(B) *Geometrical* **sector**
(C) Track sector
(D) Cluster

A disk drive track^[1] is a circular path on the surface of a disk or diskette on which information is magnetically recorded and from which recorded information is read.

A track is a physical division of data in a disk drive, as used in the Cylinder-Head-Record (CCHHR) addressing mode of a CKD disk. The concept is concentric, through the physical platters, being a data circle per each cylinder of the whole disk drive. In other words, the number of tracks on a single surface in the drive exactly equals the number of cylinders of the drive.

Tracks are subdivided into blocks (or sectors, pages) (see: Storage block and Virtual page).

The term track is sometimes prefaced with the word logical (i.e. "3390-9 has 3 logical tracks per physical track") to emphasize that it is used as an abstract concept, not a track in the physical sense.

References

[edit]

^ "Storage Concepts!". quizlet.com. Retrieved 19 May 2025.

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In computing, a track in a disk drive refers to a narrow, concentric circular path on the surface of a rotating magnetic disk platter where data is recorded and read using read/write heads.^[1] These tracks form the fundamental units of data organization on hard disk drives (HDDs) and floppy disks, enabling the storage of binary information in a structured manner.^[2] Tracks are typically divided into smaller segments known as sectors, which represent the smallest addressable unit of data storage on the disk, traditionally holding 512 bytes, though modern standards often use 4,096 bytes for advanced format drives.^[1]^[3] A group of tracks aligned at the same radial distance across multiple platters in a multi-platter drive forms a cylinder, which facilitates efficient data access by allowing the read/write heads to remain stationary while retrieving information from the same logical position on different surfaces.^[4] This cylinder-head-sector (CHS) addressing scheme was historically used to locate data, though contemporary systems primarily employ logical block addressing (LBA) to abstract the physical geometry.^[5] The concept of tracks originated in early magnetic disk storage developed by IBM in the 1950s, with the IBM 350 RAMAC drive featuring 100 tracks per surface to store up to 5 million characters.^[6] Over time, track density has dramatically increased due to advancements in materials and head technology; modern HDDs can contain thousands of tracks per inch, enabling terabyte-scale capacities.^[7] To optimize storage efficiency, most drives since the 1990s implement zoned bit recording (ZBR), which divides tracks into radial zones where outer zones have more sectors per track than inner ones, compensating for the varying linear velocities and maximizing overall data density.^[8] Despite the rise of solid-state drives, tracks remain central to HDD architecture, influencing performance metrics like seek time and data transfer rates.^[9]

Fundamentals

Definition

In disk drives, data storage occurs on rotating platters, which are thin, circular disks typically made of aluminum or glass coated with a magnetic medium. These platters spin at a constant angular velocity, usually measured in revolutions per minute (RPM), enabling the read/write heads to access data as the surface moves beneath them.^[10] A track is a concentric circular path on the surface of a disk platter where data is encoded, serving as the fundamental unit for radial organization of storage. Each track represents all the data accessible by a read/write head at a fixed radial position from the center of the platter, allowing for efficient sequential access along the circular path. Tracks are arranged as a series of narrow, ring-like bands on the platter, typically numbered starting from the outermost track (track 0) and increasing toward the innermost track, facilitating systematic addressing by the drive's controller.^[11]^[12] When multiple platters are stacked in a drive, the aligned tracks at the same radial position across all surfaces form a cylinder, which represents a vertical slice of data that can be accessed without moving the actuator arm. This organization optimizes seek operations by allowing heads on different surfaces to read or write from corresponding tracks simultaneously. Each track is further subdivided into sectors, the smallest addressable units of data storage.^[13]

Relation to Other Storage Elements

In disk drives, tracks serve as the fundamental radial units for data organization and are subdivided into sectors, which represent the smallest addressable storage units. Each sector typically holds a fixed amount of data, such as 512 bytes in traditional formats or 4096 bytes in advanced configurations like Advanced Format drives, allowing for efficient data allocation and access.^[4]^[14] Cylinders provide a vertical dimension to this structure by aligning corresponding tracks across all platters in a multi-platter drive at the same radial position, forming a conceptual cylinder that spans the drive's height. This alignment enables simultaneous access to data on multiple surfaces without requiring lateral movement of the actuator arm, thereby minimizing seek times and optimizing performance during read/write operations.^[4]^[1] Read/write heads are the electromechanical components that interact directly with tracks to perform data operations; each platter surface is served by a dedicated head mounted on a shared actuator arm assembly, ensuring precise positioning over the target track.^[4]^[15] To maximize storage capacity, many modern disk drives employ Zone Bit Recording (ZBR), which groups tracks into concentric zones based on their radial distance from the disk center, with outer zones accommodating more sectors per track due to their larger circumference. This technique varies sector counts across zones—typically assigning more sectors to outer tracks—while maintaining consistent data rates within each zone, resulting in up to 30% higher overall capacity compared to uniform sector distributions.^[8]^[16]

Historical Development

Origins in Magnetic Storage

The concept of tracks in disk drives originated with the invention of the IBM 305 RAMAC (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control) system in 1956, which introduced the world's first commercial hard disk drive, the IBM 350 Disk Storage Unit.^[17] This pioneering device featured 50 stacked 24-inch aluminum platters coated with magnetic oxide, rotating at 1,200 RPM, where data was organized into concentric tracks on the surfaces of the platters to enable random access storage.^[18] Each platter surface utilized 100 such concentric tracks, confined to a 5-inch outer band for recording, achieving a track density of approximately 20 tracks per inch (TPI).^[19] The track design in the RAMAC was directly influenced by earlier magnetic drum memory systems, which stored data in helical or circumferential bands around a rotating cylinder, but adapted this cylindrical approach to flat, multi-platter disks to increase capacity and accessibility while maintaining similar magnetic recording principles.^[20] In the IBM 350, each track was divided into 5 sectors, with each sector holding 100 alphanumeric characters (using a 6-bit BCD encoding plus parity), resulting in a capacity of about 500 characters per track.^[19] This structure allowed for efficient sequential access within tracks and random positioning of read/write heads across tracks, marking a shift from sequential media like tape to addressable disk storage. A key milestone came in 1957 with the commercial deployment of the RAMAC systems, which incorporated track-based addressing to identify data locations by specifying the disk surface, track number, and sector within the track, facilitating direct access in under one second for accounting and control applications.^[21] The first production unit shipped that year to United Air Lines in Denver, establishing track organization as a foundational element in magnetic disk storage for business computing.^[17]

Evolution Through Decades

In the 1960s and 1970s, advancements in track design focused on improving reliability through environmental protection. The IBM 3340, introduced in 1973, pioneered Winchester technology, which enclosed the read/write heads, platters, and access mechanism in a sealed removable module to minimize contamination from dust and particles, thereby enhancing data integrity and track stability.^[22] This sealed approach marked a shift from open disk packs, allowing for lubricated disks and low-mass heads that reduced wear on tracks during operation.^[23] During the 1980s, track configurations in removable media like floppy disks became standardized for broader compatibility, while hard disk drives saw incremental increases in track counts to support growing storage needs. Early 8-inch floppy disks typically featured 77 tracks per side in single-sided double-density formats, enabling capacities around 250 KB per disk for system software and data exchange in minicomputers.^[24] A key milestone occurred around 1981 when Shugart Associates released the SA410 drive, a double-sided double-density model with 40 tracks per side for 5.25-inch floppies, enabling formatted capacities of approximately 360 KB and widespread adoption in personal computers.^[25] Concurrently, hard disk drives transitioned to hundreds of tracks per platter; for instance, the Seagate ST-506 from 1980 utilized 153 cylinders (equivalent to tracks per surface), supporting 5 MB capacities in the emerging PC market.^[26] The 1990s and 2000s brought transformative changes in track density through refined recording techniques, enabling exponentially higher data packing. The adoption of magnetoresistive heads in the mid-1990s further supported these density gains by enhancing read performance.^[27] Longitudinal magnetic recording dominated the 1990s, with track densities reaching approximately 10,000 tracks per inch by the decade's end, driven by thinner media and precise servo mechanisms.^[28] The introduction of perpendicular magnetic recording in 2005 by Seagate revolutionized track design by orienting magnetic bits vertically, which reduced inter-track interference and permitted narrower tracks without signal loss.^[29] This innovation propelled densities beyond 100,000 tracks per inch by 2010, as seen in enterprise drives exceeding 100 Gb/in² areal density, fundamentally scaling storage capacities for consumer and data center applications.^[30]

Technical Aspects

Physical Structure

A track on a disk drive platter is a narrow, concentric annular region designed to hold magnetically encoded data through aligned domains of ferromagnetic material. These tracks are physically realized as bands of microscopic magnetic particles or grains on the platter surface, enabling the storage and retrieval of binary information via changes in magnetic orientation.^[31] In modern hard disk drives, track widths (pitches) typically range from 0.03 to 0.1 micron (30-100 nm), enabling high areal densities while minimizing inter-track interference.^[32] The platters themselves are constructed from rigid substrates of aluminum alloy or glass, which provide mechanical stability during high-speed rotation, and are coated with thin films of cobalt-based alloys—such as cobalt-chromium or cobalt-platinum—that form the magnetic recording layer, often just 10-20 nanometers thick. This multilayer structure, deposited via sputtering, ensures the magnetic domains remain stable and resistant to thermal fluctuations.^[32]^[31]^[33] For accurate head positioning over these fine tracks, dedicated servo tracks are embedded radially across the platter, incorporating patterns like phase-encoded wedges or amplitude-modulated bursts that generate position error signals. These servo patterns, written during manufacturing using specialized equipment, divide the disk into servo wedges—typically 100-200 per revolution—and enable closed-loop feedback control to keep the head centered within 5-10% of the track width, compensating for vibrations and thermal expansion.^[34]^[35] The geometry of tracks introduces variation in physical length based on radial position: inner tracks are shorter, while outer tracks are longer due to their greater distance from the center. The circumference of a track is given by the formula

C = 2\pi r

, where

r

is the radial distance from the disk's center; for a typical 3.5-inch platter,

r

ranges from about 10 mm (inner) to 40 mm (outer), yielding circumferences differing by a factor of about 4. In constant angular velocity (CAV) schemes, common in hard drives, the disk spins at a fixed rotational speed (e.g., 7200 RPM), so outer tracks' longer paths permit more sectors per revolution to balance data transfer rates across the disk.^[36]^[37]

Data Encoding and Access

Data on tracks in disk drives is encoded using specialized schemes to maximize storage density while mitigating intersymbol interference and ensuring reliable detection of magnetic transitions. Run-Length Limited (RLL) encoding constrains the number of consecutive zeros (or flux transitions) between ones to a minimum and maximum run length, such as in (2,7)-RLL where runs are limited to 2-7 bits, allowing up to 50% more data than earlier methods like Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM) by optimizing bit packing on the magnetic medium.^[38]^[39] This approach was widely adopted in early high-capacity drives to balance clock synchronization and data rate without excessive hardware complexity.^[38] More advanced schemes, such as Partial Response Maximum Likelihood (PRML), emerged in the 1990s to further increase areal density by modeling the readback signal as a partial-response channel and using Viterbi detection to decode the most likely sequence, enabling higher linear densities beyond peak-detection limits of RLL.^[40] PRML treats the analog waveform from the read head as a filtered version of the ideal signal, applying maximum-likelihood sequence estimation to recover bits, which significantly improved signal-to-noise ratios in magnetoresistive head environments and became standard in production drives by the mid-1990s.^[40] These encoding methods operate at the track level, where data is serialized into sectors, each typically holding 512 bytes or more, serialized along the circumferential path.^[37] Accessing data on a specific track involves radial movement of the read/write head via a voice coil motor (VCM), which uses electromagnetic force to accelerate and decelerate the actuator arm precisely, achieving seek times on the order of milliseconds for typical track-to-track jumps.^[41] The VCM's linear response allows for rapid positioning, with servo mechanisms providing feedback to minimize settling time after seeking.^[42] Total access time to a sector on the target track comprises the seek time

t_{seek}

(time to move the head radially) plus rotational latency (average time for the desired sector to rotate under the head), excluding transfer time for simplicity in random access calculations.^[43] The rotational latency averages half a disk revolution, given by

\frac{1}{2} \times \frac{60}{\text{RPM}}

seconds, where RPM is the drive's rotational speed, such as 7200 for enterprise drives, yielding about 4.17 ms latency.^[44] Thus, the average access time formula is

t = t_{seek} + \frac{1}{2} \times \frac{60}{\text{RPM}}

.^[45] To ensure data integrity during encoding and access, error correction mechanisms are applied at the sector level within tracks. Each sector includes a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) in the header for detecting errors in the sector identifier and address fields during reads.^[46] For the payload data, Error-Correcting Codes (ECC), typically Reed-Solomon codes, provide correction capability for multiple symbol errors per sector, enabling on-the-fly recovery of bit flips due to media defects or noise without halting operations.^[47] Track-level integrity may aggregate sector ECC results, with drive firmware retrying uncorrectable sectors via read verification or remapping.^[48] These techniques maintain bit error rates below

10^{-12}

in modern drives, crucial for reliable track data retrieval.^[47]

Variations Across Media

In Hard Disk Drives

In hard disk drives (HDDs), tracks are concentric circular paths on rigid magnetic platters where data is magnetically encoded, enabling high-capacity storage through advanced recording techniques. Modern enterprise HDDs achieve track densities exceeding 200,000 tracks per inch (TPI), a significant advancement driven by the need for greater areal density in data centers.^[49] Shingled magnetic recording (SMR) further enhances this by allowing tracks to partially overlap like shingles on a roof, typically providing 7-25% higher capacity compared to conventional perpendicular magnetic recording, with gains decreasing at higher densities while maintaining read compatibility.^[50] This overlapping design requires sequential write management to avoid data corruption during updates, making SMR particularly suited for write-once, read-many workloads in archival and cloud storage.^[51] Track allocation in HDDs often employs zoned bit recording (ZBR), where the disk surface is divided into concentric zones with varying numbers of sectors per track to optimize capacity utilization. Outer zones, benefiting from larger circumferences, accommodate more sectors—often 20-50% more than inner zones, depending on zone configuration—resulting in higher data density at the platter's periphery. For instance, 2024 Seagate Exos models with capacities over 20 TB utilize this format, achieving around 2 TB per platter through refined zone configurations that balance linear bit density across radii. This zoning improves overall efficiency but necessitates adaptive firmware for head positioning during reads and writes. Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR), first commercially available from Seagate in 2024 for enterprise applications, narrows the effective track width to approximately 20 nm by using a laser to temporarily heat the media, allowing higher coercivity materials to store data more densely without thermal interference.^[52] This technology has enabled drive capacities beyond 30 TB in 2025 models, with platters exceeding 3 TB each, marking a key evolution in track precision for sustained areal density growth.^[53] Performance in HDDs is influenced by track access mechanics, with track-to-track seek times typically under 1 ms in modern designs due to advanced actuators and servo systems. In 2025 SSD-HDD hybrid configurations, where a small SSD cache accelerates frequent accesses, effective seek times drop below 0.5 ms for cached operations, blending HDD capacity with SSD-like responsiveness for mixed workloads.

In Floppy and Optical Disks

In floppy disks, tracks are organized as concentric circles on both sides of the double-sided magnetic medium, typically 40 to 160 tracks total for double-sided formats depending on the format, with an index hole in the disk sleeve providing alignment for the start of each track.^[54] For example, the standard 3.5-inch high-density (HD) floppy disk with 1.44 MB capacity features 80 tracks per side, each divided into 18 sectors of 512 bytes, enabling reliable data storage through magnetic encoding.^[55] These tracks are accessed via a stepper motor that precisely positions the read/write heads over specific tracks, ensuring sequential or random access in a removable, low-density medium designed for portability.^[55] The 3.5-inch floppy disk, introduced in the 1980s, standardized at 135 tracks per inch (TPI), balancing density with mechanical reliability in an era of evolving personal computing needs.^[56] However, by the 2000s, floppy disk usage entered a terminal decline as optical and solid-state alternatives offered greater capacity and speed, rendering the format largely obsolete for mainstream applications.^[57] In contrast, optical disks like CD-ROMs employ a single continuous spiral track rather than discrete concentric ones, with a track pitch of 1.6 μm incorporating a wobble groove for precise laser guidance.^[58] This spiral design, etched with microscopic pits and lands to represent binary data, accommodates approximately 650 MB of read-only storage by leveraging laser reflection for non-contact reading.^[59] Access in optical media relies on laser tracking servos that follow the wobble groove dynamically, differing markedly from the mechanical stepper motor positioning in floppies and enabling higher data throughput despite the removable nature of the medium.^[58]

Modern Implications

Track Density Trends

Track density in hard disk drives (HDDs) is a critical factor in achieving higher areal density, defined as the product of linear density (bits per inch, or BPI, along a track) and radial density (tracks per inch, or TPI).^[60] The areal density

AD

in gigabits per square inch (Gb/in²) is calculated as

AD = \frac{BPI \times TPI}{10^9}

.^[61] This metric encapsulates how compactly data can be stored on the disk surface, with advancements in TPI enabling narrower tracks and thus greater overall capacity.^[62] Historically, TPI has increased dramatically, starting from approximately 5,000 TPI in high-end HDDs around 2000, driven by perpendicular magnetic recording and servo improvements.^[63] By the mid-2020s, typical enterprise drives reached hundreds of thousands of TPI, supporting areal densities of 0.9–1.0 Tb/in² in conventional models. Projections indicate drive capacities surpassing 50 TB by the late 2020s, as outlined in industry roadmaps emphasizing shingled magnetic recording (SMR) and advanced heads.^[64] A key milestone occurred in 2024 when Seagate introduced the first 30 TB HAMR-based HDD, achieving an areal density of approximately 1.7 Tb/in² through enhanced TPI and BPI.^[65] In early 2025, Seagate introduced 36 TB HAMR HDDs achieving approximately 1.8 Tb/in².^[53] In 2025, leading HDDs utilizing microwave-assisted magnetic recording (MAMR) attain areal densities of 1–2 Tb/in², enabling capacities up to 32 TB in enterprise configurations without requiring thermal assistance.^[66] This progress stems from refined write heads and media that support tighter track spacing while maintaining signal integrity.^[67] However, superparamagnetism poses a fundamental challenge, destabilizing magnetic grains when track widths narrow below 10 nm, as thermal fluctuations overcome coercivity in unassisted recording.^[68] Technologies like heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) mitigate this by temporarily reducing coercivity via localized heating, allowing viable densities at sub-10 nm scales.^[69] Without such innovations, further TPI gains beyond current limits would compromise data reliability.^[70]

Transition to Solid-State Storage

Solid-state drives (SSDs) fundamentally differ from traditional disk drives by lacking physical tracks, cylinders, or sectors etched onto spinning platters. Instead, they rely on NAND flash memory organized into pages—typically ranging from 4 KB to 16 KB—and blocks comprising multiple pages, where data is stored and erased in these granular units.^[71] To maintain compatibility with operating systems and applications designed for magnetic storage, SSDs employ a flash translation layer (FTL) that emulates logical block addressing (LBA), presenting storage as a sequence of 512-byte or 4 KB sectors arranged on virtual tracks.^[72] This abstraction hides the underlying NAND structure, allowing seamless integration while eliminating mechanical seek times associated with physical track access. The NVMe protocol, introduced in 2011, further abstracts away any remnants of physical track geometry by defining a streamlined, block-oriented interface optimized for non-volatile memory over PCIe.^[73] Unlike legacy protocols like AHCI, which inherit disk-specific addressing, NVMe treats storage as a flat array of logical blocks, bypassing track-based commands entirely and enabling end-to-end latencies as low as 150 microseconds for read operations.^[74] This shift reduces overhead from protocol translation, prioritizing parallel command queues and direct memory access to achieve performance unattainable with rotational media. In hybrid storage systems, which combine HDDs with SSD caching, physical tracks on the magnetic disks persist but are accelerated through intelligent prefetching and caching of hot data into solid-state layers. For instance, 2025 models from Seagate, such as NVMe-enabled hybrid arrays demonstrated at industry events, use flash tiers to cache frequently accessed sectors from HDD tracks, blending the capacity of physical media with SSD speeds.^[75] These configurations extend the utility of track-based access in scenarios demanding high-capacity archival storage, though the caching layer increasingly obscures direct interaction with physical geometry. Projections indicate SSDs will dominate consumer storage by 2025, capturing over 70% of the internal drive market share driven by cost reductions and performance demands.^[76] By 2030, analysts foresee the near-complete phase-out of physical tracks in consumer applications as SSD adoption reaches parity or exceeds HDDs in volume for personal computing, fueled by ongoing NAND density improvements and the obsolescence of mechanical components.^[77]

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Track (disk drive)

Fundamentals

Definition

Relation to Other Storage Elements

Historical Development

Origins in Magnetic Storage

Evolution Through Decades

Technical Aspects

Physical Structure

Data Encoding and Access

Variations Across Media

In Hard Disk Drives

In Floppy and Optical Disks

Modern Implications

Track Density Trends

Transition to Solid-State Storage

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Track (disk drive)

Fundamentals

Definition

Relation to Other Storage Elements

Historical Development

Origins in Magnetic Storage

Evolution Through Decades

Technical Aspects

Physical Structure

Data Encoding and Access

Variations Across Media

In Hard Disk Drives

In Floppy and Optical Disks

Modern Implications

Track Density Trends

Transition to Solid-State Storage

References

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