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Written vernacular Chinese
Written vernacular Chinese, also known as baihua, comprises forms of written Chinese based on the vernacular varieties of Chinese spoken throughout China. It is contrasted with the more concise Literary Chinese, which was the dominant style of official and scholarly writing in imperial China until the early 20th century.
Writing styles based on vernacular Mandarin Chinese were used in novels by Ming and Qing dynasty authors, and later refined by intellectuals associated with the May Fourth Movement. A standardized form corresponding to the grammar of spoken Standard Chinese eventually developed, and has become the modern standard of writing used by speakers of all varieties of Chinese throughout Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. It is commonly called standard written Chinese or modern written Chinese to distinguish it from older versions of written vernaculars (such as those used in the Classic Chinese Novels) and other modern unofficial written vernaculars such as written Cantonese and written Hokkien.
During the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), Old Chinese was the spoken form of the language, which was reflected in the Classical Chinese used to write the Chinese classics. Spoken Chinese began to evolve faster than the written form, which continued to emulate the language of the classics. The differences grew over time: By the Tang and Song dynasties (618–1279), people began to write in their vernacular dialects in the form of bianwen and yulu (語錄; 'language record'),[citation needed] and the spoken language was completely distinct from the formal Literary Chinese. Familiarity with Literary Chinese was fundamental to higher education. During the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1912), vernacular language began to be used in novels, but most formal writing was in Literary Chinese, save a few baihua newspapers during the late Qing.
In the 20th century, political activists began attempting to replace formal Literary Chinese with a written vernacular based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. Possible reforms included replacing characters with a phonetic writing system, character simplification, and expanding the vernacular lexicon with technical terminology for use in formal contexts. These activists wanted to create a literary context more accessible to the general public, and ultimately increase literacy in the country.
Written vernacular Chinese was also popularized by the Western missionaries entering China during the 19th century. Missionaries wrote stories, poems, essays and other works in vernacular to better spread their message. This early form of baihuawen was mainly written according to local vernaculars, rather than based on a specific dialect. Missionaries retained some of the style of the original texts, while adapting them to a Chinese audience.
Lower Yangtze Mandarin formed the standard for written vernacular Chinese, until it was displaced by the Beijing dialect during the late Qing. Baihua (白话; 'plain speech') was used by writers across China regardless of their local spoken dialect. Writers used Lower Yangtze and Beijing grammar and vocabulary in order to make their writing understandable to the majority of readers. While more difficult to master for writers who spoke other dialects, this standard written vernacular had the effect of standardizing written Chinese across the country, which had previously been the role of Literary Chinese. Following the May Fourth Movement, baihuawen became the normal written form of Chinese. While the phonology of modern Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, its grammar is officially based on exemplary works of vernacular literature, which excludes certain colloquial forms while incorporating some constructions from Literary Chinese. Similarly, written vernacular Chinese excludes slang from the Beijing dialect while absorbing some Literary vocabulary, as well as foreign loanwords and a small number of regionalisms from other major dialect groups.
The period following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China was characterized by efforts at language reform. Many of the first language reformers of this period were associated with the New Culture Movement, which began around 1916 due to anti-imperialist and anti-traditionalist sentiments which boiled over during the May Fourth Movement, and which also promoted concepts like republicanism and democracy.
These sentiments inspired a movement to democratize language and replace classical Chinese with a written vernacular. Some of the most important proponents of vernacularization were Mao Zedong and renowned writer Lu Xun. This was at first before the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party, which occurred in 1921, though some of the most radical language reform activists were communists.
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Written vernacular Chinese
Written vernacular Chinese, also known as baihua, comprises forms of written Chinese based on the vernacular varieties of Chinese spoken throughout China. It is contrasted with the more concise Literary Chinese, which was the dominant style of official and scholarly writing in imperial China until the early 20th century.
Writing styles based on vernacular Mandarin Chinese were used in novels by Ming and Qing dynasty authors, and later refined by intellectuals associated with the May Fourth Movement. A standardized form corresponding to the grammar of spoken Standard Chinese eventually developed, and has become the modern standard of writing used by speakers of all varieties of Chinese throughout Mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. It is commonly called standard written Chinese or modern written Chinese to distinguish it from older versions of written vernaculars (such as those used in the Classic Chinese Novels) and other modern unofficial written vernaculars such as written Cantonese and written Hokkien.
During the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), Old Chinese was the spoken form of the language, which was reflected in the Classical Chinese used to write the Chinese classics. Spoken Chinese began to evolve faster than the written form, which continued to emulate the language of the classics. The differences grew over time: By the Tang and Song dynasties (618–1279), people began to write in their vernacular dialects in the form of bianwen and yulu (語錄; 'language record'),[citation needed] and the spoken language was completely distinct from the formal Literary Chinese. Familiarity with Literary Chinese was fundamental to higher education. During the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1912), vernacular language began to be used in novels, but most formal writing was in Literary Chinese, save a few baihua newspapers during the late Qing.
In the 20th century, political activists began attempting to replace formal Literary Chinese with a written vernacular based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. Possible reforms included replacing characters with a phonetic writing system, character simplification, and expanding the vernacular lexicon with technical terminology for use in formal contexts. These activists wanted to create a literary context more accessible to the general public, and ultimately increase literacy in the country.
Written vernacular Chinese was also popularized by the Western missionaries entering China during the 19th century. Missionaries wrote stories, poems, essays and other works in vernacular to better spread their message. This early form of baihuawen was mainly written according to local vernaculars, rather than based on a specific dialect. Missionaries retained some of the style of the original texts, while adapting them to a Chinese audience.
Lower Yangtze Mandarin formed the standard for written vernacular Chinese, until it was displaced by the Beijing dialect during the late Qing. Baihua (白话; 'plain speech') was used by writers across China regardless of their local spoken dialect. Writers used Lower Yangtze and Beijing grammar and vocabulary in order to make their writing understandable to the majority of readers. While more difficult to master for writers who spoke other dialects, this standard written vernacular had the effect of standardizing written Chinese across the country, which had previously been the role of Literary Chinese. Following the May Fourth Movement, baihuawen became the normal written form of Chinese. While the phonology of modern Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, its grammar is officially based on exemplary works of vernacular literature, which excludes certain colloquial forms while incorporating some constructions from Literary Chinese. Similarly, written vernacular Chinese excludes slang from the Beijing dialect while absorbing some Literary vocabulary, as well as foreign loanwords and a small number of regionalisms from other major dialect groups.
The period following the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China was characterized by efforts at language reform. Many of the first language reformers of this period were associated with the New Culture Movement, which began around 1916 due to anti-imperialist and anti-traditionalist sentiments which boiled over during the May Fourth Movement, and which also promoted concepts like republicanism and democracy.
These sentiments inspired a movement to democratize language and replace classical Chinese with a written vernacular. Some of the most important proponents of vernacularization were Mao Zedong and renowned writer Lu Xun. This was at first before the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party, which occurred in 1921, though some of the most radical language reform activists were communists.