Two-port network

Two-port networkMain

Community hub

Two-port network

8 pages, 0 posts

0 subscribers

Recent from talks

Be the first to start a discussion here.

Recent from talks

Be the first to start a discussion here.

Contribute something

About hubMembersContent overviewUpdatesRules

Main reference articles

Two-port network

View on Wikipedia

from Wikipedia

Not found

Revisions and contributors Edit on Wikipedia Read on Wikipedia

View on Grokipedia

from Grokipedia

A two-port network is an electrical circuit or device characterized by two pairs of terminals, called ports, where each port consists of a pair of nodes allowing for the measurement of voltage and current, facilitating the analysis of energy transfer between an input and an output.^[1] These networks model linear, passive systems such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, and transmission lines, assuming no internal power sources and often exhibiting reciprocity, where the response is symmetric between ports.^[2] The behavior of a two-port network is described using sets of parameters that relate the port voltages and currents, enabling simplified analysis of complex circuits. Common parameter sets include impedance (Z) parameters, which express voltages in terms of currents (e.g.,

V_1 = Z_{11}I_1 + Z_{12}I_2

); admittance (Y) parameters, the inverse relating currents to voltages; hybrid (H) parameters, mixing voltage and current for transistor modeling; and transmission (ABCD) parameters, ideal for cascading networks by relating input to output variables.^[3] These parameters can be interconverted and are particularly useful for networks that are reciprocal (where

Z_{12} = Z_{21}

) or symmetrical.^[2] Two-port networks are fundamental in electrical engineering for applications including amplifier design, filter synthesis, signal processing, and microwave systems, where they allow modular analysis of interconnected components in series, parallel, or cascade configurations. In RF and high-frequency contexts, they extend to scattering (S) parameters to account for wave propagation, aiding in the characterization of antennas, couplers, and transmission lines.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Graphical Representation

A two-port network is an electrical circuit or device characterized by four terminals grouped into two pairs, each pair forming a port that connects to external circuits.^[4] The network is modeled as a black box, where the internal components—such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, or dependent sources—are encapsulated, and the external behavior is described solely by the voltages and currents at the ports.^[5] Each port consists of two terminals, with the voltage defined as the potential difference across them and the current as the net flow into the port, ensuring no direct connection between the ports except through the internal network.^[6] The variables associated with the ports are the input port voltage

V_1

and current

I_1

at port 1, and the output port voltage

V_2

and current

I_2

at port 2.^[5] Port 1 is conventionally the input, where

I_1

enters the positive terminal and

V_1

is measured with the positive polarity at that terminal.^[4] For port 2, the output,

I_2

is defined as leaving the positive terminal to indicate power flow direction, with

V_2

across the terminals and positive polarity at the exit point.^[6] This directionality aligns with the passive sign convention, where positive power is absorbed when voltage and current have the same polarity reference.^[6] Graphically, a two-port network is often represented in a chain diagram, showing port 1 on the left with its terminals facing right toward port 2 on the right, emphasizing the sequential input-output flow like links in a chain.^[4] In distributed systems, such as transmission lines, it is depicted as a line segment connecting the two ports at opposite ends, modeling wave propagation between them.^[4] Another representation is the lattice diagram, which illustrates a symmetrical configuration with series and shunt elements arranged in a crossed (diagonal) and parallel structure, useful for balanced networks.^[7] Two-port networks are typically assumed to be linear, meaning responses are proportional to excitations and superposition applies; time-invariant, with parameters unchanging over time; and composed of lumped elements, where component sizes are negligible compared to signal wavelengths unless specified as distributed.^[6] They may be passive, containing only energy-dissipating or -storing elements, or active, incorporating sources for amplification.^[8]

Applications in Circuit Analysis

Two-port networks originated in the early 20th century as a fundamental tool in electrical engineering, particularly for analyzing telephone lines and transmission systems during the expansion of long-distance telephony. Pioneered by researchers at Bell Laboratories, such as George A. Campbell, the theory addressed challenges in signal attenuation and multiplexing over extended cables, with early applications focusing on loading coils and wave filters to improve voice transmission quality.^[9] Campbell's seminal work on physical theory of electric wave filter circuits, published in 1922, laid the groundwork for modeling linear networks as interconnected two-ports, enabling systematic design of frequency-selective components for telephony.^[10] This historical development, building on transmission line theory from the late 19th century, transformed circuit analysis by providing a modular framework for cascading network sections, as exemplified in the use of ABCD parameters for telephone cable modeling.^[11] In practical electronics, two-port networks play a central role in simplifying the analysis of amplifiers, filters, transmission lines, and matching networks by representing complex subsystems as black boxes with defined input and output relationships. For amplifiers, transistors are commonly modeled as two-port devices using hybrid parameters to calculate voltage gain, input/output impedances, and stability factors, facilitating broadband design in communication systems. In filter design, two-port representations allow engineers to predict frequency response and insertion loss, essential for separating signal bands in analog multiplexing, as seen in early telephony filters and modern RF front-ends. Transmission lines, such as coaxial cables or microstrip lines, are analyzed using scattering or ABCD parameters to account for reflections and attenuation, ensuring signal integrity over high-speed links. Matching networks, often composed of lumped elements or distributed lines, employ two-port models to optimize power transfer and minimize standing wave ratios in RF systems.^[12] The benefits of this approach lie in its modularity, which permits treating subsystems independently while enabling precise calculations of overall gain, impedance matching, and stability in cascaded circuits. By isolating internal complexities, two-port analysis reduces computational demands and supports superposition for linear systems, making it invaluable for predicting performance without full circuit simulation. For instance, in transistor-based amplifiers, the two-port model reveals potential oscillations through stability criteria like the Rollett factor, guiding design iterations. In RF circuits, it ensures signal integrity by quantifying return loss and insertion gain, critical for minimizing distortions in wireless transceivers.^[13] Examples abound in electronics, such as modeling a common-emitter transistor amplifier as a two-port to derive h-parameters for small-signal analysis, which directly informs bias and feedback configurations. In RF engineering, two-port networks characterize antenna matching circuits to achieve 50-ohm interfaces, enhancing efficiency in radar and cellular systems. These techniques extend to modern applications in integrated circuits, where two-port models simulate on-chip amplifiers and filters in CMOS processes for low-power 5G transceivers. In microwave engineering, scattering parameters describe high-frequency behavior of waveguides and monolithic microwave integrated circuits (MMICs), supporting designs up to millimeter waves. Additionally, in control systems, actuators and sensors are represented as two-ports to analyze feedback loops and dynamic responses, aiding stability in robotic and automotive applications.^[14]^[15]

General Properties

Linearity and Superposition

In two-port networks, linearity refers to the property where the output voltages and currents are directly proportional to the input excitations, satisfying both homogeneity and additivity. Homogeneity implies that scaling an input by a constant factor

k

scales the corresponding output by the same factor, while additivity means that the response to a sum of inputs equals the sum of the individual responses.^[16]^[17] This linearity enables the application of the superposition theorem, which states that in a linear two-port network with multiple independent sources, the total response at any port is the sum of the responses produced by each source acting alone, with all other sources deactivated (voltage sources shorted and current sources opened).^[16] Superposition simplifies analysis by allowing decomposition of complex excitations into simpler components.^[17] Mathematically, linearity manifests in the linear algebraic relations between port voltages

\mathbf{V}

and currents

\mathbf{I}

, such as

\mathbf{V} = \mathbf{Z} \mathbf{I}

in impedance form or

\mathbf{I} = \mathbf{Y} \mathbf{V}

in admittance form, where

\mathbf{Z}

and

\mathbf{Y}

are constant matrices independent of the excitation levels.^[17] These relations hold for networks composed of linear elements like resistors, inductors, and capacitors.^[16] As a consequence, linearity facilitates parameter extraction by applying independent excitations to each port sequentially, leveraging superposition to isolate individual effects without interference from other inputs.^[6] It is particularly valid in small-signal analysis, where signals are sufficiently small to avoid nonlinear behavior.^[18] However, linearity breaks down in networks containing nonlinear elements such as diodes or transistors, where responses do not scale proportionally; in such cases, small-signal linearization approximates the behavior around an operating point using equivalent linear models.^[17]^[18]

Reciprocity and Symmetry

In two-port networks, reciprocity refers to the property where the transfer characteristics are identical in both directions, meaning the response at one port due to excitation at the other is the same as the reverse scenario. Mathematically, this is expressed in impedance parameters as

z_{12} = z_{21}

and in admittance parameters as

y_{12} = y_{21}

, indicating that the open-circuit voltage at port 1 due to a current at port 2 equals the open-circuit voltage at port 2 due to the same current at port 1.^[1] This condition holds for passive, linear, time-invariant networks composed of elements like resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transmission lines, provided there are no active devices or materials that introduce directionality, such as gyrotropic media.^[19] The reciprocity theorem underlying this property was formalized by Hendrik Lorentz in his work on electromagnetic theory, with key extensions applied to network analysis in the early 20th century. Symmetry in a two-port network describes a balanced configuration where the input and output ports exhibit equivalent behavior, allowing interchange without altering the overall response. This is characterized by

z_{11} = z_{22}

in impedance parameters and

h_{11} = h_{22}

in hybrid parameters, implying a mirrored structure that equalizes self-impedances or admittances at both ports.^[20] A symmetric network often combines reciprocity with this port equivalence, leading to simplified parameter matrices where the determinant of the hybrid matrix equals unity as a condition of symmetry. Such symmetry is common in balanced transformers and certain filter topologies, facilitating easier analysis and implementation. To verify reciprocity experimentally, one method involves interchanging the source and load positions between ports and measuring the transfer ratios, such as the ratio of output voltage to input current; equality confirms the property. For instance, applying a current source at port 1 and measuring open-circuit voltage at port 2, then swapping and repeating, yields identical ratios in reciprocal networks.^[5]^[1] This testing approach leverages the invariance of excitation-response ratios under port reversal, as defined in standard network theory.^[21] Reciprocity and symmetry have significant implications for network design, particularly in passive components like filters and transformers, where they enable bidirectional signal handling and reduce complexity in modeling symmetric responses. In filter design, reciprocal properties ensure consistent performance regardless of signal direction, aiding in the development of bandpass filters with uniform insertion loss. Similarly, in transformers, symmetry simplifies impedance matching and core modeling, enhancing efficiency in power and signal applications. Non-reciprocal two-port networks, by contrast, violate these conditions and are realized using active elements like transistors or ferrite materials in microwave devices; examples include circulators, which direct signals unidirectionally via ferrite-based nonreciprocal phase shifts under magnetic bias.

Parameter Sets

Impedance Parameters (Z-Parameters)

The impedance parameters, or Z-parameters, characterize a two-port network by expressing the port voltages as linear functions of the port currents under open-circuit conditions at the respective ports. These parameters are particularly useful for networks analyzed with current excitations and series connections, as they directly yield impedances in ohms. The defining equations are:

V_1 = z_{11} I_1 + z_{12} I_2

V_2 = z_{21} I_1 + z_{22} I_2

where

V_1

and

V_2

are the voltages across ports 1 and 2, and

I_1

and

I_2

are the currents entering those ports.^[22] The individual Z-parameters are obtained by setting one current to zero:

z_{11} = V_1 / I_1

with

I_2 = 0

(port 2 open-circuited),

z_{21} = V_2 / I_1

with

I_2 = 0

z_{12} = V_1 / I_2

with

I_1 = 0

(port 1 open-circuited), and

z_{22} = V_2 / I_2

with

I_1 = 0

. This measurement approach reflects open-circuit impedance conditions, making Z-parameters ideal for scenarios where ports are not shorted during characterization.^[23]^[24] Physically,

z_{11}

represents the driving-point input impedance at port 1 when port 2 is open, indicating how the network loads the source at the input. Similarly,

z_{22}

is the driving-point output impedance at port 2 when port 1 is open, showing the network's output loading effect. The off-diagonal terms

z_{21}

and

z_{12}

quantify the transfer impedances:

z_{21}

is the ratio of output voltage to input current with output open (forward transfer), and

z_{12}

is the ratio of input voltage to output current with input open (reverse transfer). These interpret as voltage ratios influenced by the network's internal coupling.^[22]^[24] In matrix notation, the Z-parameters compactly represent the network as:

\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} z_{11} & z_{12} \\ z_{21} & z_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix}

This form facilitates analysis of series combinations, where the total Z-matrix is the sum of individual matrices, and all elements share units of ohms for dimensional consistency.^[25] For reciprocal networks,

z_{12} = z_{21}

, reflecting symmetric energy transfer between ports as discussed in network symmetry properties. The advantages of Z-parameters include their suitability for series-connected networks, where parameters add directly, and their intuitive impedance interpretation for voltage-current analyses in lumped circuits.^[25]

Admittance Parameters (Y-Parameters)

Admittance parameters, commonly referred to as Y-parameters or short-circuit admittance parameters, describe the behavior of a linear two-port network by expressing the port currents as linear functions of the port voltages. These parameters are obtained by applying voltages to one port while short-circuiting the other port to measure the resulting currents. The approach is particularly suited to networks where short-circuit conditions are practical for measurement or analysis.^[26] The fundamental equations defining the Y-parameters are:

I_1 = y_{11} V_1 + y_{12} V_2

I_2 = y_{21} V_1 + y_{22} V_2

Here,

I_1

and

I_2

represent the currents entering the positive terminals of ports 1 and 2, respectively. In matrix notation, this relationship is:

\begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} y_{11} & y_{12} \\ y_{21} & y_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix}

The elements are specifically defined as

y_{11} = \left. \frac{I_1}{V_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0}

y11=V1I1

V2=0, $y_{12} = \left. \frac{I_1}{V_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0}$

V1=0, $y_{21} = \left. \frac{I_2}{V_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0}$

V2=0, and $y_{22} = \left. \frac{I_2}{V_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0}$

V1=0, with short-circuit conditions applied as indicated.^[26] Physically, $y_{11}$ is the input admittance observed at port 1 with port 2 short-circuited, $y_{22}$ is the output admittance at port 2 with port 1 short-circuited, $y_{21}$ is the forward transadmittance measuring the output current response to input voltage under shorted output conditions, and $y_{12}$ is the reverse transadmittance capturing the input current response to output voltage under shorted input conditions. All Y-parameters have units of siemens (S), reflecting their admittance nature.^[26] Y-parameters offer advantages in scenarios involving parallel configurations of two-port networks, where the overall Y-matrix is simply the sum of the individual matrices, simplifying analysis of shunt-connected systems. For reciprocal networks, the condition $y_{12} = y_{21}$ holds.^[26] Consider a shunt admittance network consisting of a parallel RC combination with admittance $Y = \frac{1}{R} + j \omega C$ connected between the ports (with common ground). The Y-parameters for this configuration are: $y_{11} = Y, \quad y_{12} = -Y, \quad y_{21} = -Y, \quad y_{22} = Y$ Thus, the matrix is: $\begin{bmatrix} Y & -Y \\ -Y & Y \end{bmatrix}$ At high frequencies, where $\omega$ is large and the capacitive term dominates, $Y \approx j \omega C$ , so $y_{21} \approx -j \omega C$ , demonstrating the network's behavior as primarily capacitive under short-circuit conditions.^[27]

Hybrid Parameters (H-Parameters)

Hybrid parameters, also known as h-parameters, provide a characterization of linear two-port networks by expressing the input voltage and output current in terms of the input current and output voltage. This mixed representation combines impedance-like and admittance-like terms, making it particularly suitable for analyzing active devices such as transistors where the input is driven by current and the output by voltage. The defining equations are:

\begin{align*} V_1 &= h_{11} I_1 + h_{12} V_2, \\ I_2 &= h_{21} I_1 + h_{22} V_2. \end{align*}

In matrix notation, this is written as:

\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} h_{11} & h_{12} \\ h_{21} & h_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} I_1 \\ V_2 \end{bmatrix}.

The individual parameters are determined under specific terminal conditions:

h_{11} = \left. \frac{V_1}{I_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0}

h11=I1V1

V2=0, the short-circuit input impedance; $h_{12} = \left. \frac{V_1}{V_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0}$

I1=0, the open-circuit reverse voltage ratio; $h_{21} = \left. \frac{I_2}{I_1} \right|_{V_2 = 0}$

V2=0, the short-circuit forward current gain; and $h_{22} = \left. \frac{I_2}{V_2} \right|_{I_1 = 0}$

I1=0, the open-circuit output admittance.^[1] Physically, $h_{11}$ represents the input impedance with the output port short-circuited, reflecting how the network loads the source; $h_{12}$ quantifies the reverse voltage feedback from output to input with the input open, indicating isolation or coupling; $h_{21}$ is the forward current transfer ratio under shorted output, akin to a current amplification factor; and $h_{22}$ denotes the output admittance with the input open, showing the network's output loading effect. These interpretations facilitate practical measurements and circuit design, especially at low frequencies where direct voltage and current probes are feasible.^[1] The h-parameters originated in the early 1950s as part of efforts to standardize transistor characterization amid rapid advancements in semiconductor technology following the invention of the point-contact transistor in 1947. Initially referred to as series-parallel parameters due to their mixed series (impedance) and parallel (admittance) nature, the term "hybrid" was coined by D. A. Alsberg in 1953 during discussions on transistor metrology at the IRE Convention, emphasizing their blend of voltage and current variables for amplifier analysis. This development occurred during the transition from vacuum tube circuits, where similar parameter sets were explored, to solid-state devices, with standardization efforts by the IRE and AIEE in 1954 promoting their use in data sheets for consistency across manufacturers. A representative application is the common-emitter (CE) configuration of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) amplifier, where h-parameters are derived from the small-signal hybrid-pi model to predict performance. In this setup, the input port corresponds to the base-emitter junction driven by base current $I_1 = I_b$ , and the output to the collector with voltage $V_2 = V_{ce}$ . The forward current gain $h_{21}$ (denoted $h_{fe}$ in CE notation) approximates the transistor's small-signal current gain $\beta$ , defined as $h_{fe} = \left. \frac{I_c}{I_b} \right|_{V_{ce}=0} \approx \beta$

Vce=0≈β, where $\beta$ typically ranges from 50 to 300 for silicon BJTs and directly influences the amplifier's voltage and power gains. The other parameters, such as $h_{ie}$ (input resistance, often 1–5 kΩ) and $h_{re}$ (reverse voltage feedback, usually small like 10^{-4}), are obtained by applying test signals to the pi-model equivalents, enabling straightforward calculation of overall circuit metrics like input impedance and output resistance without full simulation.^[28]

Inverse Hybrid Parameters (G-Parameters)

The inverse hybrid parameters, or g-parameters, characterize a two-port network by expressing the input current

I_1

and output voltage

V_2

as linear functions of the input voltage

V_1

and output current

I_2

. The defining equations are:

I_1 = g_{11} V_1 + g_{12} I_2

V_2 = g_{21} V_1 + g_{22} I_2

In matrix form, this relationship is represented as:

\begin{pmatrix} I_1 \\ V_2 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} g_{11} & g_{12} \\ g_{21} & g_{22} \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} V_1 \\ I_2 \end{pmatrix}

The individual parameters are defined under specific termination conditions:

g_{11} = \left. \frac{I_1}{V_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0}

g11=V1I1

I2=0 (input admittance with the output port open-circuited), $g_{12} = \left. \frac{I_1}{I_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0}$

V1=0 (reverse current transfer ratio with the input port short-circuited), $g_{21} = \left. \frac{V_2}{V_1} \right|_{I_2 = 0}$

I2=0 (forward voltage transfer ratio with the output port open-circuited), and $g_{22} = \left. \frac{V_2}{I_2} \right|_{V_1 = 0}$

V1=0 (output impedance with the input port short-circuited). These parameters have clear physical interpretations in circuit analysis: $g_{11}$ represents the driving-point admittance at the input port under open-circuit conditions at the output, $g_{12}$ quantifies the reverse transfer of current from the output to the input under short-circuit conditions at the input, $g_{21}$ measures the forward transfer of voltage from the input to the output under open-circuit conditions at the output, and $g_{22}$ denotes the driving-point impedance at the output port under short-circuit conditions at the input. The off-diagonal elements $g_{12}$ and $g_{21}$ are dimensionless, while $g_{11}$ has units of admittance (siemens) and $g_{22}$ has units of impedance (ohms). The g-parameters are particularly advantageous for analyzing transistor-based amplifiers where the input is driven by a current source and the output delivers voltage, such as in common-base configurations of bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), as they naturally align with low input impedance and high output impedance characteristics.^[25] For reciprocal networks, which contain no dependent sources or non-reciprocal elements like gyrators, the condition $g_{12} = -g_{21}$ holds, ensuring symmetry in the transfer characteristics.^[25] As an example, consider a common-base BJT amplifier analyzed using the small-signal hybrid-π model, where the base is grounded, the input is applied to the emitter (port 1), and the output is taken from the collector (port 2). The parameters are derived from the model elements: transconductance $g_m = I_C / V_T$ (where $V_T$ is the thermal voltage), base-emitter resistance $r_\pi = \beta / g_m$ (with $\beta$ the common-emitter current gain), and output resistance $r_o$ . Approximating for high $\beta$ and neglecting base-width modulation initially, $g_{11} \approx g_m$ , $g_{12} \approx -\alpha$ (where $\alpha = \beta / (1 + \beta) \approx 1$ is the common-base current gain, yielding $g_{12} \approx -1$ ), $g_{21} \approx g_m r_o$ , and $g_{22} \approx r_\pi / (\alpha r_o (1 + g_m r_\pi))$ . Including the Early effect via $r_o$ , the forward voltage gain $g_{21}$ is large under conditions where output resistance dominates and current transfer is nearly ideal, illustrating the configuration's utility for high voltage gain in buffered applications.^[25]

Transmission Parameters (ABCD-Parameters)

Transmission parameters, also known as ABCD-parameters, describe a two-port network by expressing the input voltage and current (at port 1) in terms of the output voltage and current (at port 2), which is particularly useful for analyzing networks where signal flow is predominantly from input to output, such as in cascade or chain configurations.^[29] The defining equations are:

\begin{align} V_1 &= A V_2 + B I_2, \\ I_1 &= C V_2 + D I_2, \end{align}

where

V_1

and

I_1

are the voltage and current at the input port,

V_2

and

I_2

are those at the output port (with

I_2

directed away from the network), and A, B, C, D are the transmission parameters.^[30] These parameters are determined under specific conditions: A is the ratio

V_1 / V_2

when the output port is open-circuited (

I_2 = 0

), B is

V_1 / I_2

when the output port is short-circuited (

V_2 = 0

), C is

I_1 / V_2

with

I_2 = 0

, and D is

I_1 / I_2

with

V_2 = 0

.^[29] In matrix form, the relationships are compactly represented as:

\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A & B \\ C & D \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_2 \\ I_2 \end{bmatrix}.

The physical interpretations of these parameters reflect their roles in network behavior: A represents the voltage ratio or transfer function with an open output, B acts as a transfer impedance (with units of ohms), C serves as a transfer admittance (with units of siemens), and D denotes the current ratio with a shorted output.^[30]^[29] A and D are dimensionless, while B and C carry impedance and admittance dimensions, respectively.^[30] For reciprocal networks, which satisfy the reciprocity theorem (no dependent sources and passive elements), the determinant of the ABCD matrix equals unity:

AD - BC = 1

.^[31] Symmetric networks, where the ports are interchangeable, further require

A = D

.^[30] These properties are summarized in the following table:

Property	Condition	Description
Reciprocity	$AD - BC = 1$	Holds for passive, linear networks without non-reciprocal elements.^[31]
Symmetry	$A = D$	Applies when the network is symmetric about its midplane.^[30]

The primary advantage of ABCD-parameters lies in their suitability for cascading multiple two-port networks, such as in ladder networks or transmission lines, where the overall matrix is obtained by simple matrix multiplication of individual ABCD matrices from right to left in the signal flow direction.^[29] This multiplicative property facilitates efficient analysis of complex systems without solving the full circuit equations each time.^[30]

Scattering Parameters (S-Parameters)

Scattering parameters, commonly known as S-parameters, characterize the response of linear electrical networks to incident and reflected traveling waves, making them particularly suitable for high-frequency applications where wave propagation effects dominate. Unlike voltage and current-based parameters, S-parameters relate the amplitudes of outgoing waves to incoming waves at the network ports, providing a framework that inherently accounts for mismatches and power transfer. This approach originated in microwave engineering to simplify analysis of distributed systems, such as transmission lines and antennas.^[32] For a two-port network, the S-parameters are defined through the relationships between the incident waves

a_1

and

a_2

(entering ports 1 and 2, respectively) and the reflected waves

b_1

and

b_2

(exiting the ports):

b_1 = S_{11} a_1 + S_{12} a_2

b_2 = S_{21} a_1 + S_{22} a_2

In matrix notation, this is expressed as:

\begin{pmatrix} b_1 \\ b_2 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} S_{11} & S_{12} \\ S_{21} & S_{22} \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} a_1 \\ a_2 \end{pmatrix}

Here,

S_{11}

represents the input reflection coefficient at port 1 when port 2 is terminated in a matched load (

a_2 = 0

), quantifying the fraction of incident power reflected due to impedance mismatch.

S_{21}

is the forward transmission coefficient, measuring the power transmitted from port 1 to port 2 under matched conditions at port 2, often interpreted as the forward gain or insertion loss.

S_{12}

denotes the reverse transmission coefficient, indicating isolation between ports by showing power transmitted from port 2 to port 1.

S_{22}

is the output reflection coefficient at port 2 when port 1 is matched (

a_1 = 0

). These parameters are dimensionless and complex-valued, capturing both magnitude (related to power ratios) and phase (related to delay).^[33]^[32] The incident and reflected waves are normalized to a reference impedance

Z_0

, typically 50

\Omega

in RF and microwave systems to match common transmission lines and measurement equipment, ensuring that

|S_{ii}|^2

directly represents the power reflection coefficient. For arbitrary or non-real

Z_0

(e.g., in active devices or lossy lines), power waves are employed instead of voltage waves to maintain a physically meaningful interpretation in terms of available and delivered power, avoiding issues with non-positive power quantities. This normalization allows S-parameters to remain bounded by unity in magnitude for passive lossless networks, facilitating stability analysis.^[33]^[32] S-parameters offer significant advantages in high-frequency networks by naturally handling discontinuities, radiation losses, and distributed effects that challenge lumped-element models like impedance parameters. They enable straightforward cascading of networks through matrix multiplication and are directly measurable using vector network analyzers (VNAs), which inject a swept-frequency signal into one port while terminating the other in a matched load to isolate each parameter. This measurement technique provides accurate characterization over broad bandwidths, essential for designing amplifiers, filters, and antennas in microwave circuits.^[34]^[35]

Scattering Transfer Parameters (T-Parameters)

Scattering transfer parameters, commonly referred to as T-parameters, provide a representation of a two-port network by expressing the incident and reflected waves at the input port (port 1) in terms of those at the output port (port 2). This approach is especially valuable in high-frequency applications, such as microwave circuits, where networks are often connected in cascade and wave propagation effects dominate. Unlike S-parameters, which relate outgoing waves to incoming waves at all ports simultaneously, T-parameters facilitate sequential analysis from input to output, making them ideal for systems with directed signal flow. The T-parameters are defined by the relations:

a_1 = T_{11} a_2 + T_{12} b_2

b_1 = T_{21} a_2 + T_{22} b_2

where

a_1

and

b_1

are the incident and reflected waves at port 1, and

a_2

and

b_2

are those at port 2. In matrix notation, this is written as:

\begin{bmatrix} a_1 \\ b_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} T_{11} & T_{12} \\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} a_2 \\ b_2 \end{bmatrix}

The matrix

\mathbf{T}

is unimodular for reciprocal networks, satisfying

\det \mathbf{T} = T_{11} T_{22} - T_{12} T_{21} = 1

. To relate T-parameters to S-parameters, start with the S-parameter definitions:

b_1 = S_{11} a_1 + S_{12} a_2

b_2 = S_{21} a_1 + S_{22} a_2

Solve the second equation for

a_1

a_1 = \frac{b_2 - S_{22} a_2}{S_{21}}

Substitute into the first equation:

b_1 = S_{11} \left( \frac{b_2 - S_{22} a_2}{S_{21}} \right) + S_{12} a_2 = \frac{S_{11}}{S_{21}} b_2 + \left( S_{12} - \frac{S_{11} S_{22}}{S_{21}} \right) a_2

Thus, the T-parameter elements are:

T_{11} = -\frac{S_{22}}{S_{21}}, \quad T_{12} = \frac{1}{S_{21}}

T_{21} = S_{12} - \frac{S_{11} S_{22}}{S_{21}} = -\frac{\Delta_S}{S_{21}}, \quad T_{22} = \frac{S_{11}}{S_{21}}

where

\Delta_S = S_{11} S_{22} - S_{12} S_{21}

is the determinant of the S-matrix. This conversion assumes

S_{21} \neq 0

, which holds for networks allowing transmission. The derivation highlights how T-parameters rearrange the S-matrix relations to prioritize chain-like propagation.^[36] A key advantage of T-parameters lies in their compatibility with cascade connections. For two two-port networks in series, the overall T-matrix is the product

\mathbf{T} = \mathbf{T}_1 \mathbf{T}_2

, enabling straightforward computation of the composite network without resolving intermediate waves. This mirrors the utility of ABCD-parameters but employs normalized power waves, preserving energy conservation and matching conditions in transmission lines. T-parameters thus excel in scenarios involving non-reciprocal components, such as amplifiers or circulators, where reflections and transmissions are asymmetric. In practice, T-parameters find extensive use in microwave filter design, where cascaded resonators and transmission line sections require iterative matrix multiplications for optimization, and in phased antenna arrays, facilitating analysis of signal distribution across elements. Their wave-based formulation inherently accounts for characteristic impedance mismatches better than voltage-current parameters at high frequencies.^[37] In the low-frequency limit, where phase shifts across the network are negligible and wave effects diminish, T-parameters approximate the transmission (ABCD) parameters. Here, the incident and reflected waves relate to voltage

V

and current

I

via

a = \frac{V + Z_0 I}{2 \sqrt{Z_0}}

a=2Z0

V+Z0I and $b = \frac{V - Z_0 I}{2 \sqrt{Z_0}}$

V−Z0I, with $Z_0$ the reference impedance. The resulting T-matrix elements align with ABCD as $T_{11} \approx A / \sqrt{Z_0}$

, $T_{12} \approx B / Z_0$ , $T_{21} \approx C \sqrt{Z_0}$

, and $T_{22} \approx D$ , bridging classical circuit analysis with RF behavior.

Network Connections

Series and Parallel Configurations

In two-port networks, series and parallel configurations allow for the combination of multiple networks while preserving the overall port structure. The series-series connection involves connecting the input ports of two networks in series and their output ports in series, resulting in the voltages adding at each port while currents remain equal. This configuration is particularly suited to impedance parameters (z-parameters), where the total impedance matrix is the sum of the individual matrices:

\mathbf{Z}_{\text{total}} = \mathbf{Z}_1 + \mathbf{Z}_2.

Thus,

z_{11,\text{total}} = z_{11,1} + z_{11,2}

z_{12,\text{total}} = z_{12,1} + z_{12,2}

z_{21,\text{total}} = z_{21,1} + z_{21,2}

, and

z_{22,\text{total}} = z_{22,1} + z_{22,2}

.^[5]^[38]^[39] The parallel-parallel connection places the input ports in parallel and the output ports in parallel, so currents add at each port while voltages are equal. Admittance parameters (y-parameters) are ideal here, with the total admittance matrix given by the sum:

\mathbf{Y}_{\text{total}} = \mathbf{Y}_1 + \mathbf{Y}_2.

Specifically,

y_{11,\text{total}} = y_{11,1} + y_{11,2}

y_{12,\text{total}} = y_{12,1} + y_{12,2}

y_{21,\text{total}} = y_{21,1} + y_{21,2}

, and

y_{22,\text{total}} = y_{22,1} + y_{22,2}

. This addition simplifies analysis for networks like parallel amplifiers or filters.^[5]^[38]^[39]^[40] For the series-parallel configuration, the input ports are connected in series (voltages add, currents equal) while the output ports are in parallel (currents add, voltages equal). Hybrid parameters (h-parameters) are appropriate, as they model input voltage in terms of input current and output voltage, and output current in terms of input current and output voltage. The total h-parameter matrix is the sum of the individual matrices:

\mathbf{H}_{\text{total}} = \mathbf{H}_1 + \mathbf{H}_2,

yielding

h_{11,\text{total}} = h_{11,1} + h_{11,2}

h_{12,\text{total}} = h_{12,1} + h_{12,2}

h_{21,\text{total}} = h_{21,1} + h_{21,2}

, and

h_{22,\text{total}} = h_{22,1} + h_{22,2}

. This setup is common in transistor amplifier stages where input series elements combine with parallel output loads.^[41]^[42] The parallel-series configuration reverses this, with input ports in parallel (currents add, voltages equal) and output ports in series (voltages add, currents equal). Inverse hybrid parameters (g-parameters) suit this arrangement, relating input current to input voltage and output current, and output voltage to input voltage and output current. The total g-parameter matrix adds directly:

\mathbf{G}_{\text{total}} = \mathbf{G}_1 + \mathbf{G}_2,

g_{11,\text{total}} = g_{11,1} + g_{11,2}

g_{12,\text{total}} = g_{12,1} + g_{12,2}

g_{21,\text{total}} = g_{21,1} + g_{21,2}

, and

g_{22,\text{total}} = g_{22,1} + g_{22,2}

. Such connections appear in current-driven circuits with series output impedances.^[41]^[42]

Cascade Configurations

In cascade configurations, two or more two-port networks are interconnected end-to-end such that the output port of the first network connects directly to the input port of the second, allowing signal flow from the input of the first to the output of the last. This arrangement is common in systems like multi-stage amplifiers or transmission line sections, where the overall behavior is determined by multiplying the parameter matrices of the individual networks. Transmission parameters, such as ABCD-parameters and T-parameters (scattering transfer parameters), are particularly suited for this due to their chain-like representation that facilitates straightforward matrix multiplication without needing to account for intermediate terminations explicitly.^[43] The ABCD-parameters define the relationship between the input voltage

V_1

and current

I_1

at port 1 and the output voltage

V_2

and current

I_2

at port 2 (with

I_2

directed out of the network) as:

\begin{bmatrix} V_1 \\ I_1 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} A & B \\ C & D \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_2 \\ -I_2 \end{bmatrix}.

For two networks in cascade, the overall ABCD matrix is the product

[ABCD]_{\text{total}} = [ABCD]_1 [ABCD]_2

, where the matrix for the input-side network (network 1) is multiplied by that of the output-side network (network 2). This multiplication yields the total

A

B

C

, and

D

elements that describe the combined network. Similarly, for T-parameters, which relate the incident and reflected waves from left to right, the overall T-matrix is

[T]_{\text{total}} = [T]_1 [T]_2

, enabling efficient analysis in high-frequency applications like microwave chains.^[43] This approach applies directly to a two-stage amplifier, where the ABCD-parameters of each common-emitter stage (derived from hybrid h-parameters and external components) are multiplied to obtain the total, revealing the cumulative gain through the

A

and

D

elements under open-circuit conditions at the output.^[30] When cascading networks, impedance matching between stages is essential to maximize power transfer and minimize reflections, particularly at high frequencies. Non-ideal effects, such as loading where the input impedance of the second network alters the output conditions of the first, are inherently captured in the matrix product assuming direct connection; however, mismatches can degrade performance, necessitating buffers or matching networks in practical designs.^[43]

Parameter Relationships

Conversions Between Parameter Sets

Conversions between different parameter sets for two-port networks are essential for analysis and design, allowing engineers to switch representations based on the application's requirements, such as impedance matching or cascading networks. These transformations are derived from the fundamental voltage and current relationships defining each set and assume the network is linear and time-invariant. All major conversions can be expressed using matrix algebra, with specific element-wise formulas for the 2×2 matrices involved. The admittance parameters

\mathbf{Y}

are directly related to the impedance parameters

\mathbf{Z}

by matrix inversion:

\mathbf{Y} = \mathbf{Z}^{-1}

The determinant follows as

\det(\mathbf{Y}) = 1 / \det(\mathbf{Z})

. This conversion is particularly useful when parallel connections are involved, as

\mathbf{Y}

parameters add directly.^[36] The hybrid parameters

\mathbf{H}

(h-parameters) can be obtained from

\mathbf{Z}

parameters as follows:

h_{11} = \frac{\det(\mathbf{Z})}{z_{22}}, \quad h_{12} = \frac{z_{12}}{z_{22}}, \quad h_{21} = -\frac{z_{21}}{z_{22}}, \quad h_{22} = \frac{1}{z_{22}}

where

\det(\mathbf{Z}) = z_{11} z_{22} - z_{12} z_{21}

. This transformation facilitates transistor modeling, where input impedance and output admittance are mixed.^[6] The inverse hybrid parameters

\mathbf{G}

(g-parameters) are simply the matrix inverse of the hybrid parameters:

\mathbf{G} = \mathbf{H}^{-1}

with elements

g_{11} = h_{22} / \det(\mathbf{H})

g_{12} = -h_{12} / \det(\mathbf{H})

g_{21} = -h_{21} / \det(\mathbf{H})

, and

g_{22} = h_{11} / \det(\mathbf{H})

, where

\det(\mathbf{H}) = h_{11} h_{22} - h_{12} h_{21}

. This set is advantageous for certain amplifier analyses involving output short-circuit conditions.^[36] For scattering parameters

\mathbf{S}

, conversions from transmission (ABCD) parameters assume a common reference impedance

Z_0

at both ports and are given by: Let

\Delta = A + \frac{B}{Z_0} + C Z_0 + D

. Then,

S_{11} = \frac{A + \frac{B}{Z_0} - C Z_0 - D}{\Delta}, \quad S_{21} = \frac{2}{\Delta},

S_{12} = \frac{2 (A D - B C)}{\Delta}, \quad S_{22} = \frac{-A + \frac{B}{Z_0} + C Z_0 - D}{\Delta}.

These formulas hold for reciprocal networks where

\det(\mathbf{ABCD}) = A D - B C = 1

, simplifying

S_{12} = S_{21}

. The reference

Z_0

(typically 50

\Omega

) normalizes the waves for power-based analysis.^[36] The scattering transfer parameters

\mathbf{T}

(also known as T-parameters) relate to

\mathbf{S}

through the chain scattering matrix formulation. Assuming the convention where

\begin{pmatrix} a_1 \\ b_1 \end{pmatrix} = \mathbf{T} \begin{pmatrix} a_2 \\ b_2 \end{pmatrix}

, the elements convert as:

S_{11} = \frac{T_{22}}{T_{11}}, \quad S_{12} = -\frac{T_{12}}{T_{11}}, \quad S_{21} = \frac{1}{T_{11}}, \quad S_{22} = -\frac{T_{21}}{T_{11}}.

This is particularly useful for cascading multiple two-port networks, as

\mathbf{T}

matrices multiply directly.^[36] These conversions are valid for linear networks and preserve properties like reciprocity (symmetric matrices for

\mathbf{Z}

\mathbf{Y}

\mathbf{H}

\mathbf{G}

) when applicable. However, at high frequencies, direct computation in

\mathbf{Z}

\mathbf{Y}

domains can encounter numerical instability due to large or near-zero elements, making

\mathbf{S}

-parameters preferable for microwave applications where measurements are normalized to

Z_0

Conditions for Special Networks

Two-port networks exhibit special properties based on their parameter sets, allowing classification into categories such as reciprocal, symmetric, passive, or lossless. These properties are determined by specific conditions on the impedance (Z), transmission (ABCD), or scattering (S) parameters, which can be tested to verify the network's behavior without requiring full circuit analysis.^[2] A reciprocal two-port network is one where the transmission characteristics are identical in both directions, meaning the response from port 1 to port 2 equals that from port 2 to port 1. In terms of Z-parameters, reciprocity holds if

z_{12} = z_{21}

.^[2] For ABCD-parameters, the condition is

AD - BC = 1

. With S-parameters, reciprocity implies a symmetric matrix where

S_{12} = S_{21}

, and for lossless reciprocal cases, the determinant satisfies

|S_{11}S_{22} - S_{12}S_{21}| = 1

, aligning with the unitary property.^[33] Symmetry in a two-port network occurs when the ports are interchangeable, yielding identical input and output impedances or characteristics. For Z-parameters, this requires

z_{11} = z_{22}

.^[2] In ABCD-parameters, symmetry is indicated by

A = D

. These conditions ensure the network behaves equivalently regardless of port orientation, common in balanced transmission lines or filters.^[2] Passivity defines networks that do not generate power, absorbing or storing it instead. The Z-matrix must have a real part that is positive semi-definite, meaning

\mathbf{Re}(\mathbf{Z}) \succeq 0

for all frequencies, ensuring no negative resistances.^[44] For S-parameters, passivity requires

|S_{ii}| \leq 1

for

i = 1, 2

, limiting reflected or transmitted power to at most the incident power.^[33] These conditions prevent amplification and maintain energy conservation in the network.^[44] Lossless networks conserve all power, with no dissipation. The S-matrix is unitary, satisfying

\mathbf{S} \mathbf{S}^\dagger = \mathbf{I}

, where

\dagger

denotes the conjugate transpose, ensuring total power reflection and transmission sum to unity at each port.^[33] In the Z-domain, all elements are purely imaginary, representing only reactance with

\mathbf{Re}(\mathbf{Z}) = 0

.^[45] For reciprocal lossless networks, the ABCD-parameters further specify

A

and

D

as real, while

B

and

C

are imaginary. Non-reciprocal networks violate directional symmetry, often due to active elements or magnetic biasing. Examples include transistor amplifiers with feedback, where forward gain exceeds reverse transmission, failing conditions like

z_{12} = z_{21}

AD - BC = 1

; parameter conversions reveal asymmetries such as

S_{12} \neq S_{21}

.^[2] Differential amplifiers also exemplify non-reciprocity, enabling unidirectional signal flow in applications like isolators.^[46]

Advanced Topics

Multi-Port Networks

A multi-port network generalizes the two-port framework to an arbitrary number of ports

N

, where the port voltages

\mathbf{V}

and currents

\mathbf{I}

are related by the impedance matrix equation

\mathbf{V} = \mathbf{Z} \mathbf{I}

, with

\mathbf{Z}

being an

N \times N

matrix whose elements

Z_{ij}

represent the voltage at port

i

due to current at port

j

(with other currents zero).^[45] The network is reciprocal if

\mathbf{Z}

is symmetric, satisfying

Z_{ij} = Z_{ji}

for all

i, j

, a condition arising from the linearity and symmetry of the underlying electromagnetic fields.^[45] This extension allows modeling of complex systems where interactions occur among multiple access points, building on the voltage-current relations familiar from two-port parameters.^[45] Three-port networks, a common case of multi-port configurations, are essential in microwave applications such as power dividers, which split input signals into multiple outputs, and circulators, which direct signals unidirectionally between ports.^[33] These devices cannot simultaneously be lossless, reciprocal, and matched at all ports, often requiring trade-offs like added resistance for matching in power dividers.^[33] Admittance parameters (Y-parameters) are particularly suited for analyzing three-port networks in nodal formulations, where currents relate to voltages via

\mathbf{I} = \mathbf{Y} \mathbf{V}

, facilitating circuit simulations by focusing on node potentials.^[47] Scattering parameters extend naturally to multi-port networks as an

N \times N

S-matrix, crucial for characterizing antenna systems where incident and reflected waves at each port define transmission and reflection behaviors.^[48] For lossless multi-port networks, the S-matrix is unitary, satisfying

\mathbf{S}^\dagger \mathbf{S} = \mathbf{I}

, which enforces power conservation across all ports.^[48] This property is vital in antenna array design, treating antennas as generalized one-ports within larger multi-port assemblies.^[48] Analyzing multi-port networks presents challenges due to the need for

N^2

independent measurements to fully determine parameter matrices like S or Z, complicating calibration and hardware requirements in vector network analyzers.^[49] Reduction techniques, such as port decomposition, address this by synthesizing equivalent two-port models from the full multi-port description, simplifying analysis for specific excitation scenarios without losing essential coupling information.^[50] Multi-port networks are applied in radio-frequency integrated circuits (RFICs) for components like multi-port hybrids and dividers that enable broadband amplification and signal routing in mm-wave systems.^[51] In multi-antenna systems, they support multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) configurations, optimizing phase and amplitude across ports for enhanced data rates in 5G and radar applications.^[51]

Reduction to One-Port Equivalents

A two-port network can be reduced to an equivalent one-port network by terminating one of its ports with a specified impedance, allowing analysis of the behavior at the remaining port as if it were a single-port device. This reduction is fundamental in circuit design, enabling the calculation of input or output characteristics under practical loading conditions. The resulting one-port equivalent is characterized by its impedance or admittance, which depends on the termination and the two-port parameters such as Z-parameters or Y-parameters.^[17] When the output port is terminated with load impedance

Z_L

, the input impedance

Z_{in}

seen at the input port is derived from the Z-parameters as

Z_{in} = z_{11} - \frac{z_{12} z_{21}}{z_{22} + Z_L}.

This expression accounts for the interaction between ports through the off-diagonal terms

z_{12}

and

z_{21}

. Equivalently, using Y-parameters, the input admittance

Y_{in}

Y_{in} = y_{11} - \frac{y_{12} y_{21}}{y_{22} + Y_L},

where

Y_L = 1/Z_L

, and

Z_{in} = 1/Y_{in}

. These formulas facilitate the design of amplifiers and filters by predicting how the load affects the input match.^[17]^[52] Symmetrically, the output impedance

Z_{out}

is obtained by terminating the input port with source impedance

Z_S

Z_{out} = z_{22} - \frac{z_{12} z_{21}}{z_{11} + Z_S}.

This measures the impedance looking into the output port, essential for maximum power transfer from the network.^[53] Special cases arise with open-circuit or short-circuit terminations. For an open-circuit output (

Z_L \to \infty

Z_{in} = z_{11}

, the open-circuit input impedance. For a short-circuit output (

Z_L = 0

Z_{in} = (z_{11} z_{22} - z_{12} z_{21}) / z_{22}

, which is the determinant of the Z-matrix divided by

z_{22}

. These extremes are used to extract individual Z-parameters experimentally. Furthermore, the terminated two-port can be represented by Thévenin or Norton equivalents at the active port. The Thévenin equivalent consists of an open-circuit voltage and the computed impedance (e.g.,

Z_{out}

with input terminated), while the Norton equivalent uses a short-circuit current and the admittance dual. Such equivalents simplify cascading with other circuits.^[17]^[54] In the scattering parameter framework, the input reflection coefficient

\Gamma_{in}

for a load reflection coefficient

\Gamma_L

\Gamma_{in} = S_{11} + \frac{S_{12} S_{21} \Gamma_L}{1 - S_{22} \Gamma_L}.

This expression is particularly useful in microwave engineering for analyzing reflections under arbitrary terminations.^[55] These one-port equivalents find applications in stability assessment, impedance matching, and noise analysis. For stability in active networks like amplifiers, the real part of

Z_{in}

must be positive (

\Re(Z_{in}) > 0

) to prevent oscillations, ensuring

|\Gamma_{in}| < 1

for all passive loads. Impedance matching sets

Z_L

such that

Z_{in} = Z_S^*

\Gamma_{in} = 0

, maximizing power transfer. In noise figure calculations, the one-port reduction with output terminated allows evaluation of the minimum noise figure by optimizing source impedance, as the noise performance depends on the effective input admittance.^[54]^[56]

History

Media collections

Two-port network

Recent from talks

Recent from talks

Contribute something

Contribute something

Media Pages

Timelines

Articles

Notes collections

Notes

Notes

Days in Chronicle

Two-port network

Two-port network

Fundamentals

Definition and Graphical Representation

Applications in Circuit Analysis

General Properties

Linearity and Superposition

Reciprocity and Symmetry

Parameter Sets

Impedance Parameters (Z-Parameters)

Admittance Parameters (Y-Parameters)

Network Connections

Series and Parallel Configurations

Cascade Configurations

Parameter Relationships

Conversions Between Parameter Sets

Conditions for Special Networks

Advanced Topics

Multi-Port Networks

Reduction to One-Port Equivalents

References

Add your contribution

Related Hubs

Contribute something