Myanmar conflict

Myanmar has been in armed conflict since 1948, when the country, then known as Burma, gained independence from the United Kingdom. The conflict has largely been ethnic-based, with ethnic armed organisations fighting Myanmar's armed forces, the Tatmadaw, for self-determination. Despite numerous ceasefires and the creation of autonomous self-administered zones in 2008, armed groups continue to call for independence, increased autonomy, or the federalisation of Myanmar. It is the world's longest ongoing civil war, spanning almost eight decades.

In 1940, during World War II, Burmese intellectuals formed the Thirty Comrades, who established the Burma Independence Army (BIA) to fight against the Allies. Aung San led the Axis-puppet State of Burma, before switching sides to the Allies in mid-1944. Post-war negotiations led to Burma's independence in 1948, but ethnic tensions arose after the Burmese government refused to honour the 1947 Panglong Agreement, which promised autonomy for some of the country's ethnic minorities. The immediate post-independence period saw the rise of the Communist Party of Burma (CPB) and Karen National Union (KNU) in particular as major rebel forces.

In 1962, Burmese general Ne Win led a military coup, establishing a junta and refusing to adopt a federal system of governance, which led to intensified insurgencies. Ne Win's regime faced internal dissent and growing civil conflict throughout his rule, culminating in the 8888 Uprising in 1988, which was violently suppressed by the military. Following the uprising, the military established the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), later renamed the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC).

Civilian rule was restored in 2011, albeit not fully, with the military retaining power in the country's legislatures through a new constitution. A military coup in 2021 by commander-in-chief Min Aung Hlaing deposed the civilian government, sparking widespread protests and escalating insurgencies.

In 1940, during World War II, a group of young Burmese intellectuals left for Japan to receive military training in preparation for an anti-colonial struggle against the British. This group came to be known as the Thirty Comrades, and upon returning to Burma in 1941 they established the Burma Independence Army (BIA) to fight against the Allies. Upon their capture of Rangoon in 1942, the Japanese established a puppet state, the State of Burma, and reorganised the BIA as its armed forces, the Burma National Army (BNA). Aung San, the leader of the State of Burma and one of the Thirty Comrades, became increasingly sceptical of Japan's ability to win the war as time progressed, and in mid-1944 he decided to switch sides. Japanese forces capitulated by July 1945, and the British began to negotiate Burma's independence with Aung San and other prominent Burmese leaders.

In the lead up to Burmese independence, Aung San negotiated with Chin, Kachin, and Shan leaders, and the Panglong Agreement was reached between them. The agreement promised full autonomy for the areas inhabited by the three ethnic minorities, with an option to secede from Burma ten years after independence. However, Aung San was assassinated shortly afterwards, and the Panglong Agreement was not honoured by the post-independence government under U Nu. This further strained relations between the Bamar ethnic majority and the country's many ethnic minorities.

Following Burma's independence from the United Kingdom on 4 January 1948, the two largest opposition groups in the country were the communists, led by the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), and the Karen nationalists, led by the Karen National Union (KNU).

Initially there was calm during the transitional period after independence, but on 2 April 1948, the CPB fired the first shots of the conflict in Paukkongyi, Pegu Region (present-day Bago Region). At its peak, the CPB had 15,000 fighters in 1949.