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Key Information

The Grand and General Council (Italian: Consiglio Grande e Generale; Romagnol: Grând e Gnèral Cunsèj) is the unicameral parliament of San Marino. The council has 60 members elected for a five-year term.

History

[edit]

From the 5th century, San Marino was ruled by an assembly composed by all the family heads known as the Arengo. However, as the population grew, such a body became more and more dysfunctional, with its functioning being crippled by feuds between families.

While the exact timing is unknown, there is historical evidence that by the early 13th century, the citizens of San Marino elected an assembly called Council of the LX, which was also known as the Grand and General Council. In this first stage the power was shared between the Arengo and the Council, with the latter gaining more and more power over the centuries.[1] This process culminated in the Statutes of 1600, which defined the Council as the "supreme, absolute and only prince"[1] of the community, attributing to it "the right over life, death and goods of every citizen"[citation needed] together with every power needed to rule and manage the country. Until the 17th century, members of the Council were periodically elected by the Arengo, then the Statutes of 1600 established that the Council could autonomously nominate its members by co-optation. This led to an increasing concentration of power in the hand of the richest families, which were also the only ones that could afford to pay for the necessary education. The oligarchic nature of the council became even clearer when, between the 17th and 18th centuries, laws were passed to formally establish a noble class with 20 seats reserved to it.

This situation ended on 25 March 1906 when the Arengo was summoned once again after centuries and in which householders were asked whether the system of co-option of councillors for life should continue. The proposal was rejected by 90.65% of voters, consequently, the country's first modern election was conducted on 10 June 1906.

During the fascist period, between 1923 and 1943, the Grand and General Council was dissolved and a new legislature called the Prince and Sovereign Council (Italian: Consiglio Principe e Sovrano) was formed, with all its 60 members belonging to the Sammarinese Fascist Party.

Suffrage was extended to women in 1959, granting to them the possibility to vote for the first time in the 1964 elections.

Electoral system

[edit]

The country's electoral law is based on the electoral system of Italian municipalities. Between 1945 and 2007, San Marino used proportional representation. A majority of at least 35 seats is given to the winning coalition of parties which receives an absolute majority of votes at the first or the eventual second round of elections. Within single coalitions, seats are divided between the parties using a D'Hondt system. A 3.5% threshold exists, together with guarantees for female candidates.

Powers

[edit]

The Council appoints from among its members the Congress of State, which is the executive branch of the government, and the Captains Regents, who serve as the heads of state.

Electoral results

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Main article: 2024 San Marino general election
Party or allianceVotes%Seats
Democracy and FreedomChristian Democratic Party6,20634.1422
Reformist Alliance1,2686.984
Coalition votes690.380
Total7,54341.5026
Libera/PS – PSDLibera / Socialist Party2,86215.7510
Party of Socialists and Democrats2,21612.198
Coalition votes640.350
Total5,14228.2918
Future Republic2,17811.988
Domani Motus Liberi1,5408.475
RETE Movement9225.073
Solidary Democracy8524.690
Total18,177100.0060
Valid votes18,17793.46
Invalid/blank votes1,2716.54
Total votes19,448100.00
Registered voters/turnout38,33850.73
Source: Secretariat of State for Internal Affairs and Civil Service

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Grand and General Council

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from Grokipedia
The Grand and General Council (Italian: Consiglio Grande e Generale) is the unicameral legislature of the , consisting of 60 members directly elected by for five-year terms. As the primary holder of legislative authority, it promulgates laws, approves the annual state budget, forms the government by endorsing its program, and appoints key officials including the , who serve as the republic's dual heads of state. The council convenes in the Palazzo Pubblico in 's historic center and is presided over by two elected from its members for six-month terms. Originating in the 13th century as an assembly sharing power with other bodies, it evolved into its current form by the mid-15th century with 60 representatives drawn from the Arengo, the assembly of heads of families, reflecting 's longstanding republican traditions. and direct elections were established in 1906, marking a shift from earlier co-optation practices and reinforcing its role in the world's oldest surviving with continuous democratic governance.

Historical Background

Origins in the Arengo and Medieval Foundations

The Arengo, San Marino's earliest known governing assembly, emerged in the around the year 1000 as a gathering of family heads who convened to deliberate and decide communal matters by unanimous acclamation, reflecting a direct democratic tradition rooted in the republic's foundational from external feudal overlords. This body exercised sovereign authority over legislation, elections, and judicial rulings, with its origins traceable to the community's need for collective self-governance following the legendary founding by in 301 AD, though formalized structures appeared amid medieval consolidation against regional powers like and the . By the 13th century, the Arengo had promulgated initial statutes, with the first recorded body of laws dating to 1253, establishing principles of democratic participation and serving as precursors to later constitutional documents. In 1243, the assembly elected the inaugural pair of Captains Regent, introducing a biannual executive magistracy to handle day-to-day administration while the Arengo retained oversight, a mechanism that balanced popular input with practical delegation amid growing population and complexity. Further codification occurred in 1295, when the Arengo issued an expanded legal framework emphasizing equality among citizens and communal defense, which influenced enduring institutional norms. As San Marino's populace expanded beyond the feasibility of universal assembly—rendering full Arengo convocations infrequent and cumbersome—the body progressively transferred legislative powers to representative councils, such as the Council of Twelve and the Council of Sixty, without formally dissolving the Arengo itself. This evolution culminated in the mid-15th century with the establishment of the Grand and General Council as a 60-member body drawn from Arengo families, tasked with enacting laws and electing officials, thereby adapting medieval communal governance to sustained republican functionality. The process reflected pragmatic responses to demographic pressures rather than imposed , preserving the Arengo's residual role in ratifying major decisions or reforms, as seen in later invocations like 1906. The Statutes of 1600, ratified on October 8, enshrined this structure by compiling prior medieval precedents into a cohesive code, affirming the Council's centrality while invoking Arengo-derived legitimacy.

Evolution Through the Renaissance and Modern Periods

By the mid-15th century, the Grand and General Council had emerged as the central legislative authority, comprising 60 members selected from the Arengo's heads of families to represent the republic's interests amid -era threats from neighboring Italian states. This structure, formalized to replace the unwieldy full assembly of all family heads, enabled efficient governance while preserving republican traditions, as evidenced by diplomatic maneuvers like the 1463 alliance with that secured against Milanese expansion. The Council's statutes during this period emphasized collective deliberation, with decisions requiring broad consensus to mitigate factionalism, though power increasingly concentrated among influential families. Into the 16th and 17th centuries, internal strife, including a brief oligarchic takeover by the ruling families in the late , prompted restorative reforms that reaffirmed the 60-member composition, divided equally among nobles (20), burghers (20), and rural landowners (20) to balance social estates and prevent dominance by any single group. This tripartite representation endured through the and Enlightenment periods, supporting San Marino's neutrality during events like the , where the Council rejected French occupation in 1797 but accepted brief protection to avoid Austrian incursions. Legislative functions expanded modestly, focusing on taxation, defense, and foreign relations, yet participation remained restricted to propertied males nominated by family networks, fostering an aristocratic character ill-suited to emerging democratic pressures. The witnessed gradual erosion of this closed system amid European liberal revolutions, with the Council resisting broader enfranchisement while adapting to Italian unification by reaffirming through papal recognition in 1862. By the early , demands for modernization culminated in reforms establishing competitive elections and formal , with regular parliamentary sessions commencing in to transition from co-optation to popular mandates among eligible voters. Post-World War I elections in 1920 marked the first snap polls under revised procedures, though fascist influences briefly disrupted proceedings until democratic restoration. Universal male suffrage solidified by the , followed by women's enfranchisement in 1960, transforming the into a fully representative body elected every five years by adult citizens. The 1945 elections exemplified this shift, as the leftist Committee of Liberty captured 40 of 60 seats, forming San Marino's first Communist-Socialist and prioritizing reconstruction over pre-war . Subsequent 20th-century adjustments, including the 1974 Declaration of Citizens' Rights and electoral law tweaks for stability, further democratized operations while retaining the 60-seat unicameral format.

Composition and Electoral System

Structure and Membership

The Grand and General Council, known in Italian as Consiglio Grande e Generale, serves as San Marino's unicameral legislature, consisting of 60 members directly elected by . These members, referred to as capitani reggenti or councilors (consiglieri), hold office for five-year terms, with elections typically held in even-numbered years. The body operates without formal constituencies, relying instead on closed party lists where voters select coalitions or individual parties, and preferential votes may influence candidate ranking within lists. Presidency of the Council is vested in two , elected semiannually on April 1 and October 1 from among the sitting members, who simultaneously assume the role of heads of state during their six-month tenure. This dual function ensures legislative oversight integrates with executive leadership, though the retain their parliamentary seats post-term. The Council's internal organization includes a Parliamentary Bureau for administrative coordination, parliamentary groups aligned with , and specialized permanent commissions addressing policy areas such as , , and . Membership eligibility requires San Marino citizenship, a minimum age of 21, and no disqualifying convictions, though detailed voter and candidate qualifications are governed by electoral law. As of the June 2024 election, the Council comprised 39 men and 21 women, reflecting ongoing but variable gender representation. Re-election is permitted without term limits, fostering continuity in a where coalitions often determine majority control.

Voting Eligibility, Procedures, and Reforms

Eligibility to vote in elections for the Grand and General Council is restricted to citizens who are at least 18 years of age on . Exclusions apply to individuals deemed by decision to have or disabilities, those serving criminal sentences, or persons under judgments. Citizens residing abroad, numbering approximately 15,091 as of the election, must return to to cast ballots in person, as no out-of-country voting mechanisms exist. Elections employ a system with preferential voting in a single nationwide constituency, electing 60 members to five-year terms. Voters select a party list or coalition and may indicate preferences for up to three candidates if residing in or one if abroad. A 5% threshold applies to lists for seat allocation via the method, with largest remainder distribution. Polling occurs at 40 stations using paper ballots; voters present a voting card and identification, with ballots stamped or signed to prevent fraud. Counting happens at 13 regional offices, supervised by a permanent . Candidacy requires and a minimum age of 21. Major reforms enacted via Qualified Law No. 2 of 5 2019 aimed to enhance governmental stability following a 2019 initiative. These include a "stability bonus" granting additional seats to the winning list or coalition to secure at least 35 of 60 seats, provided it exceeds half the valid votes or 30 quotients. Absent such a , a second-round runoff occurs between the top two contenders. Post-election limits coalitions to pre-declared lists, and new incompatibilities bar first-degree relatives or partners from simultaneous Council membership. Subsequent adjustments reduced polling stations from prior levels, eliminated from voter rolls, and shifted from manual ballot numbering to stamping for verification. The system lacks provisions for international or citizen observation, contravening OSCE commitments, and features no passive out-of-country voting despite expatriate numbers.

Powers and Functions

Legislative Authority

The Grand and General Council holds the legislative power of the Republic of San Marino, enacting statutes that regulate , civil and criminal matters, economic activities, and . This authority derives from the republic's constitutional framework, including the Statutes of 1600 and the 1974 Declaration of Citizens' Rights and Fundamental Principles of San Marino's Legal Order, which vests the Council with responsibility for political policy and law-making. Legislative bills may be introduced by individual councilors, groups of councilors, the Congress of State, or parliamentary commissions. Proposed undergoes examination in specialized commissions before plenary , where approval requires a simple majority of votes from attending members, provided a is met. Enacted laws are promulgated by the , who serve as heads of state and ensure formal assent, though they lack power over parliamentary decisions. The Council approves the annual state budget, supervises its execution through financial oversight, and ratifies international treaties, which must align with San Marino's sovereignty and fundamental rights. Certain measures, such as tax reforms or territorial boundaries, may require referendums or approval by the Arengo, the general assembly of citizens, to ensure direct democratic input on major issues. Amendments to organic laws or the typically demand a two-thirds majority, reinforcing stability in core institutional matters.

Oversight, Appointments, and Administrative Roles

The Grand and General Council maintains oversight of the executive through mechanisms such as summoning government members and senior officials for questioning, as stipulated in Article 23, paragraph 3, of Qualified Law No. 184/2005. It conducts parliamentary inquiries under Law No. 105/2014, with two such inquiries initiated in 2021. Additionally, members submit written questions to the government; in 2023, 50 questions were asked, and 40 (80%) received responses. The Council also approves key appointments, including those for ambassadors and the head of the central bank, ensuring parliamentary scrutiny over significant executive decisions. In terms of appointments, the Council elects the two —San Marino's joint heads of state—every six months by absolute majority vote, per Qualified Law No. 186/2005. It selects judges for the from among its own members or others, with terms typically aligned to legislative cycles. The Council further nominates members to bodies like the Council of XII, permanent commissions for policy areas such as and , and administrative boards, such as those overseeing public enterprises, often at the legislature's outset. For instance, it appoints the for certain state entities, comprising a president and four members for fixed terms. Administrative roles encompass delegated powers beyond pure legislation, including the approval of state asset alienations and disposals of as authorized . Internally, the Council appoints its two presiding officers and up to eighteen commission members in a single session at the start of each five-year term to facilitate its operations. It also oversees accountability for institutions like the , requiring reports and performance evaluations submitted directly to the parliamentary body. These functions reinforce the Council's role in balancing legislative authority with executive and judicial checks within San Marino's system.

Role in San Marino's Government

Interaction with Captains Regent and Executive

The Grand and General Council elects the two , who serve as joint heads of state, every six months on a rotating schedule from 1 to 1 and 1 to 1 ; candidates are selected from among the Council's 60 members by absolute majority vote. The preside over sessions of the Grand and General Council but hold no voting rights and cannot independently decide matters, functioning primarily in a supervisory and ceremonial capacity to ensure compliance with legal norms. The Council also elects the Congress of State, the collective executive body comprising 10 Secretaries of State drawn from Council members, which exercises executive authority under principles of collegiality and accountability to the legislature. This election occurs at the start of each five-year legislative term or following government resignation, enabling the Council to direct and control overall government policy through its composition of the executive. The Congress of State must resign before the Captains Regent upon a vote of no confidence or legislative dissolution by the Council, reinforcing parliamentary oversight. In practice, the Council's legislative powers intersect with the executive via mandatory approvals, including the national budget, treaty ratifications, and appointments to bodies like the of Twelve; the Captains Regent may return executive decrees to the for reconsideration before promulgation, but ultimate policy alignment remains subject to Council direction. This structure, outlined in the 1974 Declaration of the Rights of Citizens and Fundamental Principles, establishes the Grand and General as the central institution balancing executive actions against legislative will, with no formal veto power vested in the beyond procedural checks.

Relations with Judiciary and Local Governance

The Grand and General Council holds significant authority over the through the nomination and election of judges for key courts, including the Ordinary Court for civil and penal matters, the , and the College of Guarantors for Constitutionality and General Norms, which functions analogously to a . These appointments, often requiring a two-thirds majority for bodies like the College of Guarantors (six judges serving four-year terms), are made from among qualified candidates, excluding citizens only for certain higher judicial roles such as Justices of the Peace. Additionally, the Council elects the Council of Twelve, a supervisory body comprising judges drawn from its own members for renewable six-year terms (with four renewed biennially), tasked with reviewing appeals and ensuring judicial consistency. While the operates with formal from the executive and legislative branches, the Council's direct role in judicial selections fosters inherent political linkages in San Marino's compact republican system. In relation to local governance, the Grand and General Council exercises indirect oversight over San Marino's nine castelli (municipalities) by enacting national legislation that establishes the administrative framework, allocates budgetary resources, and defines competencies for local bodies. Each castello is governed by an elected Giunta di Castello (municipal council) and a (mayor), selected through direct every five years since reforms in , with the winning electoral list's head assuming the captaincy under a simple majority system and seats distributed via proportional methods like the d'Hondt formula for the giunto. Local giunte handle citizen services, consultations, and community initiatives but lack binding authority on final decisions, which rest with central institutions; giunte provide advisory input to national bodies, while individual citizens retain appeal rights against central rulings. The Council has facilitated local governance reforms through dedicated committees, such as the one established on March 21, 1995, culminating in a report, underscoring its legislative primacy without routine interference in local elections or operations. This structure balances national legislative control with localized electoral autonomy, though central dominance in resource distribution and policy enforcement limits de facto municipal independence.

Political Dynamics

Dominant Parties and Coalition Patterns

The in necessitates coalition governments for the Grand and General Council, as no single party has attained an absolute majority of 31 seats since the adoption of in 1926, with extended to women in 1964. This pattern stems from the republic's electoral laws, which allocate 60 seats via closed-list with a 3.5% threshold, fragmenting representation among 5–10 competing lists or coalitions per . Historically, the (PDCS), aligned with centrist Catholic social teachings, dominated post-World War II politics, holding power continuously from 1945 to 1973 either alone or in minimal coalitions, before ceding to left-leaning alliances led by the (PSD) and predecessors amid economic modernization pressures. Subsequent decades saw alternating center-right coalitions anchored by PDCS and center-left ones involving PSD or Socialist Party (PS) variants, with durations averaging 2–3 years due to internal fractures or scandals, such as the 2001 government collapse triggering early elections. These shifts reflect causal influences like Italy's political cycles, given San Marino's economic interdependence, and domestic factors including banking secrecy reforms and EU association talks. In the June 9, 2024, election, PDCS secured 22 seats with 34% of valid votes (from 50.7% turnout of 19,449 voters), reaffirming its position as the largest single party, while Alleanza Popolare (AR) gained 4 seats at 7%. The Libera alliance (PS-led) took 10 seats at 16%, and PSD 8 at 12%, enabling a centrist of PDCS, AR, Libera-PS, and PSD—totaling over 40 seats—formed by June 26 to elect and pass budgets, excluding populist outliers like R.E.T.E. (3 seats) and (8 seats). This broad pact prioritizes fiscal stability and pro-EU policies over ideological purity, mirroring patterns since the where anti-establishment surges (e.g., RETE's 2016 peak) prompt inclusive majorities to marginalize extremes. Coalition durability hinges on consensus for semi-annual selections, often pairing nominees from partner parties, though vetoes or abstentions have dissolved governments 10 times since 1990, underscoring the system's bias toward pragmatic alliances over partisan dominance. PDCS's recurring anchor role—participating in 70% of governments since 1945—stems from its voter base in rural and traditional sectors, while left-leaning PSD/PS provides urban and labor support, enabling cross-spectrum deals on issues like tax harmonization with .

Key Elections and Political Crises

The Grand and General Council has witnessed several pivotal elections and crises, often stemming from fragility in San Marino's system, which frequently yields fragmented results requiring multiparty alliances for governance. Post-World War II, the 1945 general election marked a landmark shift, with a communist-socialist securing a parliamentary and establishing the world's first democratically elected communist , which governed until internal divisions eroded its stability. This culminated in the 1957 Rovereta Affair, San Marino's most severe , triggered by defections from the ruling coalition that created a 30-30 parliamentary deadlock between communist and anti-communist factions. Rival governments emerged: the incumbent communist-led regime retained control of the capital, while opponents established a provisional anti-communist administration in Rovereta, backed by citizen militias and former Italian , leading to a tense standoff without widespread violence. The crisis resolved in favor of the anti-communists, who assumed power and outlawed the , reshaping the political landscape for decades. In contemporary politics, recurring coalition breakdowns have prompted multiple snap elections, underscoring the challenges of maintaining majorities in the 60-seat chamber. The 2012 early parliamentary election followed government instability, as observed by international monitors. Similarly, a February 2001 coalition rupture within the ruling necessitated snap polls that year. The most recent crisis unfolded in mid-2023, when the left-wing eurosceptic R.E.T.E. movement withdrew from the governing coalition of PDCS, PSD, DML, and itself, collapsing the majority and triggering early elections on 9 June 2024 amid of approximately 50%. In the vote, the center-right PDCS-led list captured 34% of the vote and 22 seats, emerging as the largest bloc, while center-left alliances like Libera (with the Socialist Party) secured 10 seats and PSD 8 seats; smaller groups including (8 seats), DML (5 seats), R.E.T.E. (3 seats), and Reformist Alliance (4 seats) filled the remainder. A pro-European centrist coalition of PDCS, PSD, Libera, and AR formed a new cabinet on 22 July 2024, stabilizing but highlighting ongoing reliance on broad alliances.

Criticisms and Challenges

Allegations of Corruption and Institutional Weaknesses

In the Conto Mazzini affair, uncovered in 2011 and culminating in convictions by 2017, numerous high-ranking officials, including former elected from the Grand and General Council, were found guilty of , , , and to influence parliamentary elections and secure political positions. Prison sentences ranged from two to eight years for those involved, exposing systemic vulnerabilities in the small republic's political elite where personal networks facilitated illicit financial flows through undeclared accounts. This scandal, affecting a significant portion of the , underscored risks of in San Marino's compact unicameral system. Earlier, in 2009, a operation implicated five national heads, including selected by the Council, leading to their arrests and highlighting inadequate oversight in executive appointments from parliamentary ranks. Subsequent banking probes in the mid-2010s resulted in charges against politicians for and tied to financial institutions, further eroding public trust and prompting anti-establishment surges in the 2016 elections. Institutionally, the Grand and General Council lacked a dedicated until 2022, despite Group of States against Corruption (GRECO) recommendations in its 2013 fourth-round evaluation urging explicit rules on conflicts of interest, transparency, and ethical standards for members of to mitigate . GRECO's 2022 compliance review noted partial implementation, with ongoing deficiencies in mechanisms and risk assessments for parliamentary roles, as the absence of a national anti-corruption strategy leaves sector-specific plans fragmented. The Council's small size—60 members representing 34,000 citizens—amplifies conflicts, as overlapping roles in legislation, oversight, and appointments foster potential for favoritism without robust external checks. Post-scandal reforms, including asset declarations and police vetting, have been introduced, yet GRECO assessments indicate insufficient independence in verification processes.

Debates on Representation and Reform Needs

Opposition parties, including Alleanza Popolare and elements of , initiated discussions on reforming the electoral in recent years to address perceived shortcomings in how the system translates voter preferences into stable legislative outcomes. These debates, ongoing as of 2025, focus on enhancing the valorization of citizens' expressed will through adjustments to list , which involves up to two voting rounds for the 60-seat Council, and promoting parity in electoral campaigns to mitigate imbalances in party resources and visibility. In March 2019, the Grand and General Council debated amendments to the electoral law, presented by the opposition, aiming to refine mechanisms for seat allocation and coalition incentives amid criticisms that the existing framework fosters excessive fragmentation and unstable coalitions in a of approximately 34,000 residents. A related August 2019 session examined the integration of outcomes into electoral dispositions, underscoring calls for provisions that prioritize majority coalitions while preserving proportionality to avoid governance paralysis from multiparty divisions. Institutional reform proposals have targeted the Council's internal operations, with the September 2025 Institutional Reforms Commission prioritizing updates to its regulations to streamline debates, reduce procedural inefficiencies, and restore legislative centrality diminished by prior separations of powers. Commissioner Lonfernini highlighted concerns over the Council's composition and diminished authority, advocating structural changes to bolster its oversight and decision-making efficacy in executive interactions. Representation debates extend to minority and expatriate inclusion, as evidenced by 2019 efforts to valorize opposition voices within the Council and 2025 consultations on expatriate citizenship and electoral laws to expand the voter base beyond residents. Broader proposals seek to reinforce the Council's political leadership, including enhanced legislative initiative powers and administrative oversight, to counterbalance executive dominance and ensure empirical alignment between electoral mandates and policy continuity. These reforms, while welcomed internationally for strengthening checks and balances, face domestic resistance over fears of altering coalition dynamics without addressing underlying fiscal and demographic pressures.

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  59. https://sanmarinofixing.com/2019/08/01/consiglio-grande-e-generale-dibattito-sul-recepimento-del-quesito-referendario/
  60. https://www.consigliograndeegenerale.sm/on-line/documento17154156.html
  61. https://sanmarinofixing.com/2025/09/10/commissione-consiliare-riforme-istituzionali-9-settembre-pomeriggio/
  62. https://sanmarinofixing.com/2019/02/27/consiglio-grande-e-generale-valorizzazione-della-rappresentanza-della-minoranza-consiliare/
  63. https://www.facebook.com/SanMarinoRTV/posts/confronto-approfonditonel-secondo-giorno-di-lavori-della-consulta-dei-sammarines/1629235355060058/
  64. https://rm.coe.int/2025-report-of-the-secretary-general-of-the-council-of-europe-en-final/1680b5ad96
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