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Cue mark
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Cue mark
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An example of a cue mark on film, from the 1931 reissue of the cartoon Trolley Troubles (1927).

The first cue mark, which is displayed on the first image, means that there are about 8 seconds until the end of the reel.

The second cue mark, displayed on the second image, means that there is about 1 second until the end of the reel.

A cue mark, also known as a cue dot, a cue blip, a changeover cue[a] or simply a cue, is a visual indicator used with motion picture film prints, usually placed in the upper right corner of a film frame.[1] Cue dots are also used as a visual form of signalling on television broadcasts.

A pair of cue marks is used to signal the projectionist that a particular reel of a movie is ending, as most movies presented on film come to theaters on several reels of film lasting about 14 to 20 minutes each (the positive print rolls themselves are either 1,000 feet or, more commonly, 2,000 feet, nominally 11.11 or 22.22 minutes, absolute maximum, with more commonly an editorial maximum of 9 to 10 or 18 to 20 minutes). The marks appear in the last seconds of each reel; the first mark, known as the motor cue, is placed about 8 seconds before the end of the picture section of the reel. The second mark, known as the changeover cue, is placed about 1 second before the end. Each mark lasts for precisely 4 frames (0.17 seconds).

Coded anti-piracy is a different kind of mark, used for watermarking to detect and prevent copyright infringement.

Placement

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The exact placement of cues varies somewhat from lab to lab.

According to SMPTE-301[1] (Theatre Projection Leader), there shall be 4 frames of motor cue, followed by 172 frames of picture, followed by 4 frames of changeover cue, followed by 18 frames of picture. That puts the motor cue at frames 198–195 from the end of the picture section of the reel (12.34 to 12.15 feet; or 12-foot-6-frames through 12-foot-3-frames), and the changeover cue at frames 21–19 from the end (1.31 to 1.18 feet; or 1-foot-5-frames through 1-foot-3-frames). As of January 2005, most domestic United States release prints follow this standard.

According to SMPTE-55[2] (SMPTE Universal leader), there shall be 4 frames of motor cue, followed by 168 frames of picture, followed by 4 frames of changeover cue, followed by 24 frames of picture. That puts the motor cue at frames 200–197 (12.47 to 12.28 feet; or 12-foot-8-frames to 12-foot-5-frames) from the end of the picture section of the reel, and the changeover cue at frames 28–25 (1.75 to 1.56 feet; or 1-foot-12-frames to 1-foot-9-frames) from the end. Prior to January 2005, domestic United States release prints printed by Deluxe Laboratories (about half of domestic first-run major releases) followed this standard.

Appearance

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Most cue marks appear as either a black circle (if the physical hole is punched out on the negative used to make the projection print of the film), or a white circle (if the mark is made by punching a hole or scraping the emulsion on the positive film print). They will also appear as an oval if the print is projected through an anamorphic lens.

A frame with a cue mark in Jitterbug Knights cartoon, c. 1939

In order to make these marks appear clearer to the projectionist, the punched film is most often "inked" after punching by application of India ink, or a similar ink. The sample frames at the right have very fine inking. In the days of three-strip Technicolor, and successive exposure Technicolor cartoons, where separate silver images were available, it was not uncommon to apply two punches, one being larger and circular and the other being smaller and "serrated", with these being done in contrasting colors.

Use

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Most projection booths in movie theaters in the past (and in some older theaters and studio screening rooms today) were equipped with two projectors side-by-side to project reels of film alternating between the two projectors. The cue mark was originally designed for such a setup.

In such a system, the projectionist had a projector running the currently playing reel (the outgoing projector) and a second incoming projector with the next reel to play, with each projector switching roles with each changeover. The projectionist would start the incoming projector with the changeover douser (shutter) closed as the first mark (the motor cue) appeared; the second projector would be threaded with the incoming reel parked 8 seconds (12 feet) of countdown ahead of the start of the picture section. The second mark (changeover cue) would alert the projectionist that the changeover was imminent, and one full second after the mark, he would trigger a solenoid that would open the incoming projector and another solenoid that would close the outgoing projector. The audio would be switched at this time as well; the audio for a particular film frame appears 20 frames (about 15 inches) before the image, and so all film prints carry the first two to three feet of audio of the reel they precede at their tail, called a sound pullup (digital systems use different offsets before or after the image, which a computer corrects for). Film prints could be prepped by a projectionist with automatic changeover cues, which were small metallic appliqués which could be applied to a print at the first cue mark. Readers attached to the projector would read the marks and execute the changeover sequence automatically, as long as the incoming reel was threaded properly on the second projector.

However, most modern movie film projection systems have the film loaded on a very large horizontally oriented platter (often colloquially known as a "cakestand"), in which all the reels of a movie are spliced together into one large contiguous wind of film filling the platter.[3] Studios and preservation libraries that allow their archival or other rare prints to be exhibited typically demand that a twin projection system still be used so that their prints are not cut up for assembly.

Such newer platter-based projectors would eliminate the need for cue marks, but the marks are still present on modern-day motion picture projection prints, mainly for older theaters and studio screening rooms still using two-projector setups, and also to aid the projectionist in identifying reel ends during the splicing together of the reels onto a platter in newer theaters.[citation needed]

In past years, certainly up to the late 1960s, cue marks were applied to the composited camera original negative, but no longer. Cue marks are now applied to the printing internegative, only, and these marks appear to be black, because the mark is made on a negative image, suitable for release print making, only. However, for many films, particularly those for which Academy consideration is anticipated, a special kind of film print, known variously as a "Showprint" (a trademark) or an "EK" (a generic name, after Eastman Kodak), is indeed made directly from the composited camera original negative. In these cases, the cue marks are manually applied to the finished film prints, and these marks appear to be white, because the mark is made on a positive image suitable for direct projection. A typical print run of such "Showprints" or "EKs" might be about five prints, with one being intended for a Los Angeles engagement (required by the Academy for its consideration), possibly one for a New York engagement, possibly one for the producer, possibly one for the distributor, and one for archival purposes.

Other

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Cue dots in television

[edit]

In television, a similar idea is used to signal to a control room that a transition of some sort is about to occur on the broadcast (such as a commercial break). The most common type of television cue dot is the IBA style, used only in the United Kingdom, which consists of a small square in the top right corner of the screen, with black and white moving stripes. The other is a proprietary system used principally by the BBC (who do not air commercials). This version is a static square in the top left corner with a white-black-white pattern.

In the early days of television, some stations used a puncher or a scriber on film prints. This was seldom accurate and not all stations used the same five second / one second pattern. Viewers were often treated to distortion just before station breaks in any film that had been around a while. Although the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers attempted to standardize television cues, its efforts went largely unheeded. The wide variety of telecine projectors (Eastman Kodak 250 on the high-end and RCA TP-16 on the low-end, for 16mm, and RCA TP-35 on the high-end and General Precision 35 on the low-end, for 35mm) significantly prevented any such standardization.

From the 1980s until the early 2000s, the cue dot was used extensively on the ITV and Channel 4 television networks in the United Kingdom as a commercial break was approaching. This was for the benefit of the regional playout centres who would need to run commercials for their broadcast areas. Automation and playout servers led to this being phased out and it is now used only for some live presentations, especially those with regional opt-outs or variable ad breaks. The cue dot appears about one minute before the break and disappears five seconds before the break starts. ITV use a spinning black-and-white ticker in the corner of the screen. In recent years, ITV have reduced usage of the cue dot to sporting events and other live broadcast programmes.

The BBC's main purpose of cue dots was to cue the following programme, either from a studio or from an outside broadcast.

Improvements in talkback and Presfax have made the BBC's usage of cue dots rare. The prevalence of digital television and the accompanying delays have made the use of cue dots to communicate with outside broadcast obsolete.

Cue dots do have some other uses: presentation may be asked to "flash your dots" by an outside broadcast unit to confirm that their off-air check feed is correct, particularly when working regionally. The dots are also used during coverage of the Wimbledon tennis championships to warn other broadcasters that the BBC feed will be cutting to an interview intended for the UK audience only, so they should be ready to go to something else.

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cue mark

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from Grokipedia
A cue mark, also referred to as a changeover cue, is a small visual indicator embedded in a frame of motion picture , designed to signal the of an upcoming event such as the end of a during theatrical projection. These marks typically appear as a brief or oval in the upper right corner of the frame, lasting only a fraction of a second on screen, and were crucial for enabling seamless reel changes in pre-digital cinema setups where films were divided into multiple short reels of approximately 10 to 20 minutes each. Historically, cue marks emerged in the early alongside the standardization of 35mm film projection in theaters, where dual projectors were used to alternate between reels without interrupting the audience's viewing experience. The process involved a first cue mark prompting the to start the next reel on a second projector about 8 to 10 seconds before the current one ended, followed by a second mark triggering the actual switchover of both picture and sound. Circular marks denoted standard films, while oval variants were used for widescreen anamorphic formats like introduced in the 1950s, adapting to the elongated frame shape. In three-strip processes, these cues sometimes took on more distinctive, colorful forms due to the film's multilayered dye-transfer system. Cue marks became largely obsolete with the introduction of single-platter projection systems in the late 1970s, which enabled continuous playback without reel changes, and were fully eliminated by the transition to digital projection in the 2000s. Nonetheless, they remain a notable artifact in restorations and transfers of classic films, often visible as fleeting "dots" or "burns" that inadvertently appear in the frame, serving as a reminder of analog cinema's technical intricacies. The informal term "cigarette burn" for these marks gained popular recognition through cultural references but is not the official industry nomenclature.

Overview

Definition

A cue mark, also known as a cue dot, cue blip, or changeover cue, is a visual indicator placed on analog motion picture prints to signal transitions between reels or segments. These marks are typically small circles or shapes created by printing, scratching, or removing from the frame, often appearing in the upper right corner. The primary purpose of a cue mark is to alert projectionists or broadcast operators to prepare for or execute a , ensuring seamless playback in multi-reel formats where films were divided into shorter segments due to technological limitations of the era. In cinema, this facilitated the switch between two projectors to maintain continuous projection without interruption. An informal term for these marks, "cigarette burn," gained widespread recognition through its depiction in the 1999 film Fight Club, where it symbolizes a meta-reference to audience awareness of film mechanics. Cue marks apply to both cinema film prints and early television broadcasts, where similar dots—often generated electronically—signaled program transitions or commercial breaks, but they do not encompass digital cinema or modern streaming equivalents.

Historical Development

Cue marks trace their origins to the silent film era in the early 1900s, when feature-length films were distributed on multiple reels of approximately 1,000 feet each, requiring projectionists to manually switch between dual projectors to maintain seamless playback. These multi-reel formats, common in theaters equipped with two projectors for continuous projection, demanded precise timing to avoid interruptions, leading to the development of early signaling methods. Projectionists initially relied on informal techniques, such as using stopwatches to estimate runtime, counting feet of film via mechanical counters on projectors, or visually estimating changes at natural breaks like scene fades to black or intertitle cards that aligned the end of one reel with the start of the next. Standardized cue marks emerged in the late and early as film production and distribution practices matured, particularly with the transition to sound films that increased runtime precision needs. In 1930, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences introduced the Academy Leader, a standardized film leader incorporating cue marks to synchronize projection and reel changes, marking a key milestone in theatrical presentation uniformity. Initially, these marks were created by scratching the directly on the camera negative during , allowing them to print onto release positives for visibility during projection. This method ensured consistency across prints but risked damaging the original negative. Cue marks were widely adopted in the 1930s as Hollywood features routinely spanned multiple reels, with major studios like and standardizing their placement through in-house laboratory practices to streamline distribution and exhibition. These studios integrated cue marks into their production pipelines to support larger audiences and more complex narratives, replacing ad-hoc projectionist markings with reliable printed signals. By the 1950s, as formats proliferated, cue marks adapted to technologies like , introduced in 1953; the marks were elongated into ovals on the negative to account for anamorphic squeezing and unsqueezing by projection lenses, preventing distortion in the 2.35:1 . In television broadcasting, electronic cue dots emerged in the mid-20th century, particularly from the onward, to signal transitions during live or taped programs and commercial breaks on networks like ITV and the . In the late 1960s, production workflows shifted cue mark application from camera originals to internegatives or interpositives, improving print quality by preserving the master negative from scratches and allowing multiple high-fidelity duplicates. This change, aligned with advances in color processing and duplication techniques, enhanced consistency and reduced wear on source materials during the era's growing emphasis on optical effects and international distribution.

Technical Aspects

Placement Standards

Cue marks on motion picture film are positioned according to established standards set by the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) to ensure reliable reel changeovers in projection systems. Prior to 2005, under SMPTE 55 (Universal Leader), the motor cue—a four-frame marker signaling the start of the second projector's motor—was placed with its first frame 200 frames before the last picture frame of the reel, while the changeover cue, also four frames long and indicating the precise moment to switch projectors, began 28 frames before the end (accounting for the cue duration and 24 subsequent picture frames). In 2005, SMPTE updated these specifications in ST 301 (Projection Leader), shifting the motor cue to start 198 frames before the end and the changeover cue to 22 frames before, with 18 picture frames following the latter to better accommodate modern projector mechanics. These timings reflect the onset of each four-frame cue sequence and are measured from the base side of the film opposite the soundtrack. The standard placement of cue marks occurs in the upper right corner of the frame, within the perforation area, to prevent any obstruction of the projected image content. This positioning ensures the marks are visible to the without impinging on the , and they span exactly four frames each for consistent detection. The dual-cue system employs the motor cue first to initiate the second projector's motor approximately 8 seconds before , allowing time for the mechanism to reach operational speed, followed by the changeover cue to execute the reel switch and provide brief overlap (approximately 0.75 seconds) between projectors for seamless playback. This interval—168 frames of picture between the end of the motor cue and start of the changeover cue pre-2005, or 172 frames post-2005—accounts for the typical time in analog projection equipment. These placements were designed for standard reels, typically 2,000 feet in length and lasting about 20-22 minutes at 24 frames per second, incorporating allowances for threading and delays. While primarily standardized for 35 mm theatrical releases, similar guidelines apply to the 16 mm format, using the same frame spacings.

Visual Characteristics

Cue marks are typically circular in shape for flat, non-anamorphic film prints to ensure visibility without obstructing the image. For anamorphic formats, such as those used in , the marks adopt an oval shape to compensate for the squeezed image ratios during projection. On color , these marks appear as black circles due to the removal or scratching of the layer, creating against the surrounding picture for clear visibility. In contrast, on black-and-white or show prints intended for exhibition, the marks are often white dots achieved by scratching through the to expose the clear base, or occasionally inked for added prominence. Creation of cue marks primarily involves scratching or punching a small hole into the emulsion using a specialized cue marker tool, which removes the light-sensitive layer to form the indicator. Alternatively, marks can be superimposed optically during the onto the release print , integrating them seamlessly without physical alteration to the base . When projected, cue marks manifest as a brief flash lasting 4 frames (approximately 0.17 seconds at 24 fps) in the upper right corner of the frame, often perceived as a fleeting "dot" or subtle "burn" that contrasts sharply with the ongoing image. Their design emphasizes durability, with the etched or punched construction allowing the marks to endure hundreds of projections in theater runs without significant fading or degradation.

Primary Applications

Role in Film Projection

In traditional cinema projection, cue marks played a in facilitating seamless transitions between in dual-projector setups, which were standard in pre-digital theaters to enable continuous playback of multi-reel films. These systems employed two synchronized projectors that alternated , with the threading the incoming reel onto the second machine in advance while the first projector ran. This integration allowed for uninterrupted screening of feature-length films, typically divided into 20-minute , without requiring platter systems or . The operational workflow relied on the 's vigilant monitoring of the screen for cue marks, which appeared as brief on-screen flashes in the upper right corner. Upon spotting the first cue mark—positioned approximately 8 seconds before the end—the would activate the motor on the second , allowing sufficient time for the machine to warm up, achieve proper speed, and synchronize with the ongoing . This step was essential to prepare the alternate without visible delay. The second cue mark, appearing about 7 seconds after the first and roughly 1 second before the reel's black leader, triggered the immediate to prevent any blackout or interruption. At this signal, the simultaneously switched the lamp, sound amplifier, and image source to the second , often using a changeover pedal or switch for precision. This procedure demanded split-second timing, with the projectionist positioned between the machines to execute the transfer smoothly. Synchronization during these switches was paramount to maintain audio-video alignment, as misalignment could result in lip-sync errors or jarring visual jumps. Cue marks were strategically placed to coincide with dissolve effects or scene transitions edited into the film print, further concealing the reel change and preserving narrative flow. In setups with optical soundtracks, the projectionist also verified that the sound drum tension remained consistent across projectors to avoid warbling or post-changeover. By standardizing reel-end timing, cue marks addressed key challenges in non-automated projection booths, where —such as misjudging reel length or delayed motor starts—could lead to visible gaps or audio dropouts. Skilled projectionists mitigated these risks through pre-show inspections of leader lengths and cue positions, adjusting threading (e.g., aligning the number "8" or "9" on the leader in the film gate) based on each machine's motor acceleration characteristics. This manual process underscored the projectionist's expertise in older theaters lacking automated cue readers. Cue marks were ubiquitous in feature films produced from to the , including restored prints of classics, where they can still be observed during reel transitions in archival screenings.

Usage in Television Broadcasting

In television broadcasting, cue marks, commonly known as cue dots, functioned as visual indicators for operators to prepare for transitions such as commercial inserts, station identifications, or scene changes during pre-digital eras. These marks were generally smaller and less obtrusive than those used in film projection, often appearing as static shapes or striped patterns in the upper corner of the frame to ensure visibility against varying backgrounds without significantly disrupting viewer experience. In the , cue dots followed regional standards established by the and the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) for commercial television. On ITV and , a distinctive of vertical black and white stripes typically appeared in the top right corner approximately one minute before a commercial break and disappeared five seconds prior to its start, which standardly lasted 30 seconds to accommodate ad slots. The employed simpler static cue marks, often in the top left or right, to signal the onset of subsequent programs from studios or outside broadcasts, aiding manual coordination in presentation areas. In the United States, visual cue dots were not as uniformly adopted but were visible in network feeds derived from transfers of , where original film cue marks inadvertently appeared on screen during broadcasts. More commonly, audio cue tones—such as DTMF signals—alerted affiliates that a commercial break would commence in 5 to 8 seconds, enabling local ad insertions; these tones sometimes supplemented visual cues in mixed analog systems. Cue dots were implemented by overlaying them electronically during live production, printing them directly onto video tapes for playback, or inheriting them from processes converting to video. Early television relied on manual tape rolling by operators responding to these visual prompts, whereas later analog setups introduced partial for precise timing. Distinct from applications, television cues varied in advance warning duration by system and region, such as up to one minute for ITV visual cues or 5-8 seconds for audio tones, to suit the single-playback format of tapes or live streams, and audio tones frequently accompanied visuals for redundancy in control rooms. These signals were particularly prominent in 1970s-1990s programming, including sitcoms and news broadcasts, where they ensured smooth transitions in analog workflows; archived footage from this period, such as productions, often preserves visible examples from segments. By the 2000s, analog cue dots were largely replaced by digital standards like for ad insertion signaling.

Evolution and Current Status

Persistence in Legacy Systems

Despite the widespread adoption of digital projection, cue marks continue to play a functional role in legacy analog systems, particularly in platter-based setups where films are divided into segments for continuous playback. In modern art-house cinemas equipped with 35mm platter systems, such as the Landmark Midtown Art Cinema in Atlanta, projectionists rely on these marks to synchronize reel changes during extended screenings, ensuring seamless transitions without interrupting the audience experience. This persistence stems from the mechanical limitations of platters, which splice multiple reels into a single large loop but still require precise timing cues to manage segment handoffs, especially in non-automated configurations. In archival and restoration contexts, cue marks are deliberately preserved on 35mm prints to maintain historical authenticity during screenings of restored classics. Archival organizations emphasize retaining original projection elements as part of the film's integrity. For instance, restored films screened at venues like the , utilize 35mm projections to reflect mid-20th-century cinema technology. Similarly, in digital restoration workflows, cue marks are often respected as historically significant defects rather than removed, ensuring their presence in analog-derived presentations. Niche applications further sustain cue marks among independent filmmakers, film festivals, and educational programs utilizing analog equipment. Independent productions shot on 35mm, such as those screened at events hosted by art-house theaters like the Theater in Orlando, incorporate cues for authentic distribution on film reels, appealing to enthusiasts of traditional workflows. Educational projections, facilitated by resources like Sprocket School, demonstrate cue mark usage to train aspiring projectionists on manual techniques, emphasizing their role in timing reel changes during hands-on workshops. Projectionists in these settings receive training to verify cue positions for manual operations, even in partially automated systems, to prevent misalignment during live presentations. Specific examples of ongoing use include the Tara Theatre in , where 35mm screenings of contemporary films like Anora occurred in March 2025, involving analog projection practices that typically include cue marks for reel changes. As of November 2025, venues like the AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center continue to feature 35mm revivals, where cues remain integral to the analog projection process for classic and restored titles. These practices highlight cue marks' enduring utility in preserving the tactile, skill-based aspects of film exhibition amid a digital-dominated landscape. As of November 2025, analog film projection persists in limited art-house and archival settings, though the number of equipped venues continues to decline.

Decline with Digital Cinema

The advent of in the early marked a pivotal shift in exhibition, as theaters transitioned from physical reels to server-based digital playback systems, rendering traditional cue marks obsolete by eliminating the need for manual reel changes. This changeover accelerated with widespread adoption, reaching approximately 99% of U.S. theaters by 2023 and similar levels in major global markets, driven by cost efficiencies and improved image quality. By the mid-2020s, major cinema chains had fully embraced digital projection, with physical prints largely confined to archival or specialty screenings. In digital systems from manufacturers like and Barco, automated playlists and metadata embedded within DCPs handle seamless content transitions, supplanting visual cue marks entirely. These integrated media processors, such as Barco's ICMP or Dolby's IMS2000 servers, use XML-based composition playlists (CPLs) to synchronize audio, video, and without projectionist intervention, ensuring precise timing through software automation rather than on-screen indicators. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) standards, including ST 429 for DCP core elements, further standardize this metadata-driven workflow, phasing out analog cue-based practices in training and operations by 2025 as digital protocols dominate. Cue marks occasionally persist as artifacts in digital transfers of legacy films, particularly when sourced from scans of original prints. In modern DCPs for new releases, such markers are absent, as production workflows generate content natively in digital formats without reel segmentation. This transition has significantly reduced the role of projectionists, with leading to widespread job losses; for instance, thousands of positions vanished as theaters adopted digital servers, shifting duties to basic IT maintenance. Environmentally, the shift minimizes waste, as via or hard drives replaces shipping thousands of physical prints per release, cutting and chemical disposal associated with analog stock. Cultural echoes of cue marks endure in nostalgic homages, such as the deliberate insertion of simulated "cigarette burns" in David Fincher's Mank (2020), which evoke 1940s reel changes to enhance the film's vintage aesthetic despite its all-digital production. While non-digital niches maintain limited analog use, the broader industry's digital pivot has solidified cue marks as a relic of pre-2010s cinema.

References

  1. https://dictionary.archivists.org/entry/cue-mark.html
  2. https://www.cinema.ucla.edu/blogs/archive-blog/2023/08/09/archive-senior-studio-projectionist-jim-smith-retires
  3. https://www.dvdtalk.com/dvdsavant/s22changecue.html
  4. https://www.theaterseatstore.com/blog/history-movie-theater-projection
  5. https://movies.stackexchange.com/questions/119332/whats-the-significance-of-cue-marks-in-mank
  6. https://dictionary.archivists.org/entry/changeover-cue.html
  7. https://www.filmmakersacademy.com/glossary/change-over-cue/
  8. https://forums.stevehoffman.tv/threads/that-white-dot-that-appears-in-old-movies-cue-marks.159195/
  9. https://www.definitions.net/definition/cue%2Bmark
  10. https://www.britannica.com/technology/motion-picture-technology/Projection-techniques
  11. https://nitrateville.com/viewtopic.php?t=24141
  12. https://www.in70mm.com/news/2010/widescreen/index.htm
  13. https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/3245047
  14. https://www.sprocketschool.org/wiki/Cues
  15. https://www.redballoon.net/~snorwood/faq2.html
  16. https://www.history.co.zw/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/H32-with-cover.pdf
  17. https://www.ernahecey.com/artworks/9884-jugnet-clairet-cue-marks-7-2017/
  18. http://www.filmonfilm.org/publications/projectionguide.pdf
  19. https://ausfilm.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/changeovers.pdf
  20. https://acofs.org.au/Film%20Screening%20Handbook/Ch3%20technical%20film.pdf
  21. https://www.newscientist.com/lastword/mg14419527-100-cue-clue/
  22. https://tvstudiohistory.co.uk/bbc-tv-centre/presentation-area/
  23. https://effectivemediaservices.com/glossary-of-terms
  24. https://www.worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Cable/LPTV-Report/LPTV-Report-1989-03.pdf
  25. https://www.sprocketschool.org/wiki/List_of_analog_film_exhibitors
  26. https://www.filmonfilm.org/publications/projectionguide.pdf
  27. https://houston.culturemap.com/news/entertainment/35mm-film-projection-mfah/
  28. https://library.imaging.org/admin/apis/public/api/ist/website/downloadArticle/archiving/18/1/art00021
  29. https://orlandoshine.com/enzian-launches-campaign-for-35mm-and-70mm-projection-upgrade/
  30. https://www.ajc.com/things-to-do/anora-screens-on-35-mm-film-at-atlanta-tara-theatre/4CD4YUC2JNCBVJ7PLL5ZPGZWZ4/
  31. https://silver.afi.com/
  32. https://www.ti.com/about-ti/newsroom/company-blog/the-inception-of-digital-cinema-and-the-journey-ahead.html
  33. https://zipdo.co/cinema-industry-statistics/
  34. https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2023-12-31/film-projection-movies-digital
  35. https://professional.dolby.com/cinema/dolby-atmos/
  36. https://www.barco.com/en/inspiration/news-insights/2018-02-07-automate-more-and-better-with-barco-alchemy
  37. https://www.smpte.org/blog/understanding-standards-digital-cinema-format
  38. https://variety.com/2013/film/news/film-jobs-decline-as-digital-distribution-gains-foothold-1200375732/
  39. https://dx.tech/blog/cinema-sustainability-discovering-a-more-environmentally-friendly-industry
  40. https://thepopbreak.com/2020/12/04/mank-review-technically-impressive-but-emotionally-ineffective/
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