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An extract (essence) is a substance made by extracting a part of a raw material, often by using a solvent such as ethanol, oil or water. Extracts may be sold as tinctures or absolutes or dried and powdered.

Extracts are widely used in various industries, such as perfumes, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and the food industry, among others.^[1]

The aromatic principles of many spices, nuts, herbs, fruits, etc., and some flowers, are marketed as extracts, among the best known of true extracts being almond, cinnamon, cloves, ginger, lemon, nutmeg, orange, peppermint, pistachio, rose, spearmint, vanilla, violet, rum, and wintergreen.

Extraction techniques

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Most natural essences are obtained by extracting the essential oil from the feedstock, such as blossoms, fruit, and roots, or from intact plants through multiple techniques and methods:

Expression (juicing, pressing) involves physical extraction material from feedstock, used when the oil is plentiful and easily obtained from materials such as citrus peels, olives, and grapes.
Absorption (steeping, decoction). Extraction is done by soaking material in a solvent, as used for vanilla beans or tea leaves.
Maceration, as used to soften and degrade material without heat, normally using oils, such as for peppermint extract and wine making.
Distillation or separation process, creating a higher concentration of the extract by heating material to a specific boiling point, then collecting this and condensing the extract, leaving the unwanted material behind, as used for lavender extract.^[2]

The distinctive flavors of nearly all fruits are desirable adjuncts to many food preparations, but only a few are practical sources of sufficiently concentrated flavor extract, such as from lemons, oranges, and vanilla beans.

Artificial extracts

[edit]

The majority of concentrated fruit flavors, such as banana, cherry, peach, pineapple, raspberry, and strawberry, are produced by combining a variety of esters with special oils. Suitable coloring is generally obtained by the use of dyes. Among the esters most generally employed are ethyl acetate and ethyl butyrate. The chief factors in the production of artificial banana, pineapple, and strawberry extract are amyl acetate and amyl butyrate.

Artificial extracts generally do not possess the delicacy of natural fruit flavor but usually taste sufficiently similar to be useful when true essences are unobtainable or too expensive.

References

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^ Cavalcanti RN, Koshima CC, Forster-Carneiro T, et al. (2022). J. Prado, M. Rostagno (ed.). Natural Product Extraction. Principles and Applications; Chapter 1: Uses and Applications of Extracts from Natural Sources. London: The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2nd ed. pp. 1–65.
^ Zhang, Qing-Wen; Lin, Li-Gen; Ye, Wen-Cai (2018-04-17). "Techniques for extraction and isolation of natural products: a comprehensive review". Chinese Medicine. 13 (1): 20. doi:10.1186/s13020-018-0177-x. ISSN 1749-8546. PMC 5905184. PMID 29692864.

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An extract is a substance obtained by removing one or more components from a raw material, typically through the use of a solvent to dissolve and isolate the desired elements from the source, resulting in a concentrated preparation of those components.^[1] This process leverages the principle that "like dissolves like," where compounds transfer into the solvent phase in which they are most soluble, often separating polar substances into aqueous layers and nonpolar ones into organic layers.^[1] Extracts are derived from diverse raw materials, including plants, animals, and minerals^[2], and can take forms such as liquids, powders, or oils depending on the extraction method and end use.^[3] Common types include plant extracts, which capture essential oils, flavors, or bioactive compounds from herbs, fruits, and flowers; animal extracts, like those from glands or tissues used in traditional medicine; and mineral extracts, obtained through processes like leaching.^[2] Extraction techniques vary widely, encompassing traditional solvent-based methods (e.g., using ethanol or water), mechanical pressing, distillation, and modern approaches like supercritical fluid extraction or microwave-assisted extraction to improve efficiency and yield.^[4]^[5] In industry, extracts play a pivotal role across multiple sectors due to their concentrated bioactive, aromatic, and functional properties. In the food and beverage industry, they serve as natural flavor enhancers, colorants, and preservatives, with examples including vanilla extract for baking and hop extracts for brewing.^[6]^[7] In pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals, plant extracts provide active ingredients for drugs, supplements, and herbal remedies, such as ginseng extract for energy support or curcumin from turmeric for anti-inflammatory effects.^[8] Additionally, they are essential in cosmetics and perfumery for fragrances and skin-care formulations, and in agriculture as biopesticides or bioherbicides to promote sustainable practices.^[9]^[3] The growing demand for natural and sustainable ingredients has driven innovations in extraction technologies, ensuring higher purity and reduced environmental impact.^[10]

Fundamentals of Extracts

Definition and Properties

An extract is a concentrated substance obtained by isolating active components from raw materials such as plants, animals, or minerals, typically using solvents like water, ethanol, or oils, which results in forms including tinctures, powders, or liquids.^[11]^[12] The term "extract" originates from the late 15th-century Latin "extractus," the past participle of "extrahere," meaning "to draw out," a concept rooted in early alchemical practices for isolating essences from natural sources.^[13]^[14] Key physical and chemical properties of extracts include their solubility in various solvents, which depends on the polarity of the bioactive compounds and the extraction medium—for instance, polar solvents like ethanol dissolve phenolics effectively, while non-polar solvents like hexane suit oils.^[11]^[15] Stability is influenced by factors such as temperature and solvent choice; thermolabile compounds may degrade above 100°C, affecting shelf life, whereas appropriate solvents enhance preservation of volatile components.^[11] Extracts often exhibit concentrated levels of bioactive compounds, such as essential oils, flavors, and alkaloids, which can be standardized to consistent percentages (e.g., 24% flavone glycosides in certain plant extracts) for reliable efficacy.^[11] Sensory attributes, including aroma and taste profiles, arise primarily from volatile constituents, contributing to their use in food and pharmaceutical applications.^[15] The basic chemical composition of extracts encompasses volatile compounds like terpenes (e.g., monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes), fixed oils comprising fatty acids such as linolenic and stearic acids, resins as mixtures of terpenes and phenolics, and non-volatile matter including flavonoids, tannins, and lignins.^[15]^[16] These components vary by source material and solvent polarity, with volatiles extracted using non-polar solvents and non-volatiles via polar ones, yielding a diverse array of bioactive profiles essential for therapeutic and industrial purposes.^[15]

Classification of Extracts

Extracts are systematically classified based on their source material, physical form, and intended purpose, providing a framework for understanding their diversity and applications in various fields. This classification helps distinguish extracts derived from natural origins and processed into different states, ensuring appropriate selection for specific uses while adhering to quality standards.^[17]

Classification by Source

Extracts are primarily categorized by their biological or inorganic origins, reflecting the raw materials from which they are obtained. Plant-based extracts, the most common type, are derived from various parts of plants such as leaves, roots, flowers, fruits, bark, or wood; examples include herbal extracts like senna from Cassia senna leaves and fruit extracts like vanilla from Vanilla planifolia pods.^[18]^[19] Animal-derived extracts originate from animal tissues or secretions, often valued for their unique bioactive compounds; notable instances are musk from the musk deer (Moschus moschiferus) and cod liver oil from fish livers, which provide omega-3 fatty acids.^[20]^[3] Mineral extracts are obtained from inorganic sources like rocks or salts, typically through dissolution or leaching processes; examples include shilajit, a resinous exudate from Himalayan rocks rich in fulvic acid, and bentonite clay extracts used for their adsorbent properties.^[21]^[22]

Classification by Form

The physical state of extracts influences their handling, stability, and incorporation into products, leading to divisions into liquid, solid, semi-solid, and concentrated forms. Liquid extracts encompass tinctures, prepared by macerating plant material in alcohol to dissolve soluble components, and infusions, which involve steeping in hot water for water-soluble compounds like teas from chamomile flowers.^[17]^[23] Solid extracts include powders and dry extracts, obtained by evaporating liquid forms to yield concentrated, shelf-stable products; powdered ginger extract from Zingiber officinale rhizomes exemplifies this category for its ease of dosing in supplements.^[24]^[25] Semi-solid extracts, such as oleoresins, result from solvent extraction of spices and resins, forming viscous pastes; black pepper oleoresin from Piper nigrum provides piperine in a concentrated, non-volatile form.^[23]^[26] Concentrated extracts like absolutes and concretes are highly potent forms produced through advanced solvent or vacuum distillation; rose absolute from Rosa damascena petals represents a concrete initially, refined into an absolute for its aromatic intensity.^[23]^[17]

Classification by Purpose

Extracts are further differentiated by their primary function, guiding their formulation and regulatory oversight. Flavor extracts are designed to impart taste in food products, such as vanilla extract from vanilla beans, which contains vanillin as the key compound.^[27]^[3] Medicinal extracts target therapeutic effects, like opium extract from Papaver somniferum latex, rich in alkaloids such as morphine for pain relief.^[19]^[21] Aromatic extracts, including essential oils, are used for fragrance and olfactory benefits; lavender essential oil from Lavandula angustifolia flowers provides linalool and linalyl acetate for calming aromas.^[28]^[17] Colorant extracts derive from pigmented natural sources to provide visual appeal without synthetic dyes; beetroot extract from Beta vulgaris roots supplies betanin for red hues in beverages and confections.^[29]^[3]

Specific Examples

Within these classifications, extracts are often graded by purity and intended use, such as food-grade extracts that meet safety standards for ingestion under regulations like FDA GRAS status, versus therapeutic-grade ones formulated for higher potency in health applications, though the latter term lacks formal legal definition and emphasizes purity testing.^[30]^[31] A modern subcategory, CO2 supercritical extracts, utilizes carbon dioxide under supercritical conditions to produce solvent-free, high-purity products suitable for both food and pharmaceutical uses; for instance, supercritical CO2 extraction of hops yields bitter acids without residual solvents, enhancing bioavailability and safety.^[32]^[33]

Extraction and Production Methods

Natural Extraction Techniques

Natural extraction techniques encompass a range of physical and solvent-based methods designed to isolate bioactive compounds from plant materials while preserving their integrity, drawing from traditional practices adapted for modern use. Solvent extraction stands as a foundational approach, utilizing polar solvents like water for infusions—where plant material is steeped in cold or hot water to extract soluble constituents—or decoctions, which involve boiling the material to release heat-stable compounds such as tannins and polysaccharides.^[34] Alcohol-based methods produce tinctures through maceration, soaking coarsely powdered plant parts in ethanol or hydroalcoholic mixtures for several days with periodic agitation, followed by filtration and evaporation under reduced pressure to concentrate the extract without degrading thermolabile components.^[34] Oil infusions, employing non-polar carriers like vegetable oils, are similarly macerated for lipophilic extracts, with processes emphasizing gentle heating or room-temperature soaking to target fat-soluble bioactives. Percolation enhances efficiency in these solvent methods by continuously passing the solvent through packed plant material in a percolator, allowing exhaustive extraction over 24 hours or more, often culminating in evaporation to yield a potent miscella.^[17]^[34] Distillation techniques are particularly suited for volatile essential oils, leveraging steam or mechanical means to liberate aromatic compounds without harsh chemicals. Steam distillation involves directing steam through comminuted plant material, such as lavender flowers, to vaporize oil components, which are then condensed and separated from the hydrosol by density differences, typically achieving yields of 0.5-2% oil content depending on the biomass.^[17] This method is ideal for herbaceous plants, as the indirect heat minimizes degradation of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. Expression, or cold-pressing, mechanically ruptures oil glands in citrus peels—such as those of oranges or lemons—using hydraulic presses or centrifuges to express the oil-water emulsion, which is then clarified, preserving fresh, heat-sensitive terpenes that distillation might alter.^[17] For extremely delicate floral scents, enfleurage employs odorless fats like purified lard spread on glass plates, onto which fresh petals (e.g., jasmine) are layered repeatedly over days; the saturated fat, or pomade, is then washed with ethanol to recover the absolute, a labor-intensive process yielding trace amounts of high-value extracts.^[17] Advanced natural techniques build on these principles with enhanced precision and scalability. Supercritical CO2 extraction exploits carbon dioxide in its supercritical state—above 31.1°C and 73.8 bar—to act as a tunable solvent, penetrating plant matrices at pressures of 73-300 bar and temperatures of 31-50°C to selectively dissolve non-polar to moderately polar compounds, followed by rapid depressurization to yield residue-free, high-purity extracts suitable for food and pharmaceutical applications.^[33] Soxhlet extraction, a continuous reflux method, automates solvent recycling through a thimble containing the plant sample, enabling exhaustive pulls of target analytes over hours to days with minimal solvent volume, often used in laboratory settings for quantitative recovery of phenolics or alkaloids from roots or leaves.^[35] Yield in these techniques is modulated by several intrinsic and operational factors, ensuring optimal recovery without compromising compound stability. The choice of plant part—leaves for volatile oils, roots for alkaloids, or seeds for fixed oils—directly affects concentration and accessibility of bioactives, as compounds localize differently across tissues.^[17] Solvent polarity must align with the solute's characteristics; polar solvents like ethanol extract glycosides efficiently, while non-polar hexane targets terpenoids, with mismatches reducing yields by up to 50%.^[17] Temperature control is critical, as elevated levels (e.g., above 60°C in decoctions) boost diffusion but risk hydrolyzing heat-sensitive flavonoids, necessitating cooler conditions for such compounds to maintain bioactivity.^[17] Representative examples illustrate these methods' practical application. Vanilla extract is commercially produced by percolating a 35-50% ethanol-water solution through chopped vanilla beans in industrial percolators, circulating the solvent for days at controlled temperatures around 50°C to extract vanillin and related aromatics, yielding a single-fold extract standardized to 100 g beans per liter.^[36] Peppermint oil, rich in menthol, is isolated via steam distillation of fresh leaves, where steam at 100°C volatilizes 1-2% of the oil content over 1-2 hours, condensed and decanted to separate the floating essential oil from the aqueous phase.^[37]

Artificial Synthesis Methods

Artificial extracts are produced through chemical synthesis to replicate the organoleptic properties of natural counterparts, primarily using organic compounds such as esters, aldehydes, and ketones. Esters like ethyl butyrate contribute to fruity profiles, such as pineapple, while aldehydes including vanillin provide creamy, vanilla-like notes, and ketones add nutty or buttery aromas. These nature-identical compounds are generated chemically to ensure structural similarity to those found in natural sources.^[38] The core production process involves esterification reactions, where an alcohol reacts with a carboxylic acid in the presence of an acid catalyst to form an ester and water, following the general equation:

\text{R-COOH} + \text{R'-OH} \xrightarrow{\text{H}^+} \text{R-COO-R'} + \text{H}_2\text{O}

R-COOH+R’-OHH+

R-COO-R’+H2O This Fischer esterification is widely applied to synthesize flavor esters under controlled conditions to optimize yield and purity. Subsequently, the synthesized compounds are blended with carriers like propylene glycol, stabilizers, and occasionally dyes to enhance solubility, prevent degradation, and facilitate incorporation into final products. Propylene glycol serves as a common solvent due to its low toxicity and ability to dissolve lipophilic flavors.^[39] Key synthetic routes exemplify these methods. For vanilla flavor, vanillin is produced via the Riedel process, condensing guaiacol with glyoxylic acid to form an intermediate, followed by oxidation to vanillin; alternatively, lignin serves as a precursor through alkaline hydrolysis and catalytic oxidation, yielding up to 9.25% vanillin. In the almond flavor route, benzaldehyde is synthesized by catalytic oxidation of toluene using hydrogen peroxide and manganese-molybdenum oxide nanomaterials at 80°C, achieving up to 78% selectivity for benzaldehyde. These routes enable precise control over molecular composition.^[40]^[41] Artificial synthesis offers advantages in scalability and cost-effectiveness compared to natural extraction. Synthetic vanillin, for instance, costs $10–20 per kg, approximately 100 times less than natural vanillin at $1,250–4,400 per kg, due to efficient petrochemical or lignin-based feedstocks. Production consistency is maintained year-round, unaffected by agricultural variables like weather or harvest yields, supporting large-scale industrial output.^[40] Quality control in artificial extract production relies on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to assess purity and compositional fidelity. GC-MS separates volatile compounds and matches their mass spectra against databases to verify the absence of impurities and ensure the synthetic profile closely mimics natural gas chromatography patterns, such as those of vanilla or fruit extracts. This analytical technique is essential for regulatory compliance and sensory reproducibility.^[42]

Applications Across Industries

Food and Beverage Uses

Extracts play a crucial role in the food and beverage industry by enhancing flavors, providing preservation, and adding natural coloration without significantly altering the texture or volume of products. Vanilla extract, derived from vanilla beans, is a staple in baking, typically used at concentrations of 0.5-2% to deliver a warm, aromatic profile that complements sweets like cakes and cookies. Almond extract enhances the nutty essence in confections such as marzipan, where small amounts—often around 0.1-0.5%—intensify the almond flavor derived from bitter almond oil. Citrus extracts, including orange and lemon, are incorporated into sodas and non-alcoholic beverages at levels of 0.05-0.2% to provide bright, tangy notes that balance sweetness and acidity. In addition to flavoring, certain extracts contribute to food preservation and visual appeal. Clove extract, rich in eugenol, exhibits strong antimicrobial properties that inhibit bacterial growth in sauces and condiments, extending shelf life naturally at dosages of 0.01-0.1%. Annatto extract serves as a vibrant natural colorant in cheeses, imparting the characteristic orange hue to varieties like cheddar through the pigment bixin, typically added at 0.001-0.005% during milk processing. Specific applications highlight the precision required in extract usage. In ice cream production, vanilla extract must meet FDA standards, requiring at least 13.35 ounces of vanilla beans per gallon of 35% alcohol solution to qualify as pure, ensuring authentic flavor intensity. Coffee extracts are essential in liqueurs, where concentrated forms infuse robust roasted notes into spirits like Kahlúa, often comprising 5-10% of the formulation for balanced bitterness. Extracts are integrated into products through direct addition for soluble forms or emulsions for oil-based ones, allowing uniform distribution in complex matrices like doughs or syrups. Dosage guidelines vary by flavor type; fruit extracts, for instance, are commonly used at 0.1-1% to achieve desired intensity without overpowering other ingredients, adhering to applicable regulatory limits in beverages. The global natural flavor extracts market was valued at approximately USD 9.8 billion in 2023, reflecting growing demand for clean-label ingredients, while the broader food flavors market, including artificial variants, reached about USD 17.7 billion, with artificial flavors holding a 59% share compared to 41% for natural ones.

Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Applications

Extracts derived from plants have long been integral to pharmaceutical and medicinal applications, serving as sources of bioactive compounds that underpin many therapeutic agents. These compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, and essential oils, exhibit diverse pharmacological activities such as analgesia, anti-inflammatory effects, and antimicrobial properties, contributing to treatments for pain, infections, and chronic conditions.^[43] In modern pharmacology, plant extracts are processed into standardized formulations to ensure consistent potency and safety, bridging traditional herbal medicine with evidence-based drug development.^[44] Alkaloids represent a key class of bioactive compounds in pharmaceutical extracts, with morphine extracted from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) exemplifying their potent analgesic effects; morphine binds to opioid receptors to provide relief in severe pain management and has been a cornerstone of pharmaceutical analgesics since its isolation in the early 19th century.^[45] Flavonoids, another prominent group, are found in extracts like those from ginkgo biloba leaves, where they enhance circulation by improving blood flow and hemodynamics, supporting treatments for peripheral artery disease and cognitive impairments associated with reduced cerebral perfusion.^[46] Essential oils, such as tea tree oil from Melaleuca alternifolia, demonstrate strong antiseptic properties due to terpinen-4-ol, which disrupts microbial cell membranes, making it effective against cutaneous infections like acne and athlete's foot in topical formulations.^[47] Medicinal extracts are commonly formulated as tinctures or capsules to optimize delivery and efficacy. Echinacea tinctures, prepared from the roots and aerial parts of Echinacea purpurea or angustifolia, support immune function by modulating innate and adaptive responses, including increased production of interferon-γ and enhancement of lymphocyte activity, often used prophylactically against respiratory infections.^[48] Standardized ginseng extracts in capsule form, such as those from Panax ginseng containing 4-7% ginsenosides, promote vitality and adaptogenic effects; ginsenosides like Rb1 and Rg1 are the primary active markers ensuring batch-to-batch consistency in products registered for pharmaceutical use.^[49] Historically, willow bark extract (Salix alba) provided salicin, a glycoside hydrolyzed to salicylic acid, serving as the natural precursor to aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) and used for centuries in fever reduction and pain relief before synthetic isolation in the late 19th century.^[50] In contemporary applications, artemisinin extracted from sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua) has revolutionized malaria treatment; this sesquiterpene lactone rapidly clears Plasmodium falciparum parasites by generating reactive oxygen species, forming the basis of artemisinin-based combination therapies recommended by global health authorities.^[51] Efficacy and standardization of herbal extracts in pharmaceuticals rely on bioassays to quantify potency, such as cell-based assays measuring biological responses like antioxidant activity or receptor binding, which validate the therapeutic consistency of extracts during quality control.^[52] The World Health Organization (WHO) provides monographs on selected medicinal plants, outlining specifications for identity, purity, and content of marker compounds to ensure safe and effective use in herbal drugs worldwide.^[53] Dosage and delivery methods for extracts vary by application, with oral forms like syrups for systemic effects and topical salves for localized treatment; bioavailability is a critical factor, often limited by poor solubility, but enhanced through liposomal encapsulation, which protects compounds like polyphenols during gastrointestinal transit and increases absorption by up to several-fold in preclinical models.^[54]

Cosmetics and Perfumery

Extracts play a pivotal role in cosmetics and perfumery, leveraging their aromatic profiles and bioactive properties to enhance fragrance longevity and skin benefits. In perfumery, essential oils and absolutes serve as core ingredients, with rose absolute (from Rosa damascena) providing a deep, honeyed floral note integral to high-end compositions like eau de parfums, which typically contain 15-20% total fragrance concentrates including such extracts.^[55]^[56] Sandalwood extract acts as a natural fixative, anchoring volatile top notes with its creamy, woody base that extends scent duration and blends seamlessly with florals and spices in up to 50% of feminine perfumes.^[57]^[58] In skincare formulations, plant extracts contribute antioxidant and emollient effects to promote skin health without therapeutic intent. Green tea polyphenols, rich in catechins like epigallocatechin-3-gallate, are incorporated into creams to scavenge free radicals and protect against oxidative stress, enhancing product efficacy for daily topical use.^[59]^[60] Jojoba extract, derived from Simmondsia chinensis seeds, functions as an emollient in lotions, mimicking skin's sebum to improve hydration, suppleness, and barrier function while providing a non-greasy texture.^[61]^[62] Formulation considerations ensure extract stability and sensory appeal in cosmetic products. Alcohol-based colognes often feature citrus extracts, such as from bergamot or lemon, diluted in ethanol to deliver fresh, volatile top notes that evaporate quickly for a light, invigorating scent.^[63]^[64] Herbal extracts in emulsions, like those from chamomile or calendula, maintain stability at pH levels of 5-7, aligning with skin's natural acidity to prevent phase separation and preserve bioactivity over time.^[65]^[66] Industry applications highlight extracts' versatility in beauty routines. Lavender extract, containing linalool and linalyl acetate, is added to shampoos for its soothing properties, calming scalp irritation and promoting a relaxed sensory experience during use.^[59]^[67] In perfumery, synthetic musks—developed as ethical alternatives to natural animal-derived extracts like deer musk—mimic warm, skin-like undertones to fix and diffuse scents without ethical concerns.^[68]^[69] Sensory evaluation in perfumery relies on the olfactory pyramid structure, categorizing extracts into top (e.g., citrus for initial burst), middle (e.g., rose for floral heart), and base notes (e.g., sandalwood for lingering depth) to create balanced, evolving fragrances.^[70]^[71] This layered approach ensures perceptual harmony, with extracts selected for their volatility and compatibility to evoke desired emotional responses.^[72]

Agricultural Applications

Plant extracts are increasingly utilized in agriculture as natural alternatives to synthetic chemicals, promoting sustainable farming practices. Neem extract (from Azadirachta indica) serves as a biopesticide, containing azadirachtin that disrupts insect growth and repels pests like aphids and locusts, applied at concentrations of 0.1-0.5% in foliar sprays.^[73] Garlic and onion extracts exhibit antifungal properties against soil-borne pathogens, used in seed treatments or soil drenches at 1-5% dilutions to reduce crop diseases. In weed control, essential oils from eucalyptus or clove act as bioherbicides, inhibiting seed germination when applied pre-emergence at 0.5-2% rates. Additionally, seaweed extracts provide biostimulants rich in auxins and cytokinins, enhancing plant growth and stress resistance when diluted to 0.1-1% for irrigation or fertigation. These applications reduce environmental impact and align with organic farming standards, with the global biopesticides market valued at USD 6.7 billion as of 2023.^[74]

Historical Development and Regulations

Evolution of Extract Production

The production of extracts traces its roots to ancient civilizations, where natural substances were harnessed for medicinal, ritualistic, and preservative purposes. In ancient Egypt around 1500 BCE, myrrh resin was extracted and used extensively in embalming processes and as an antiseptic in medical treatments, valued for its aromatic and healing properties.^[75] Similarly, in ancient Greece during the 5th century BCE, physicians like Hippocrates employed herbal extracts through infusion and early distillation-like methods to prepare remedies from plants such as garlic and mustard, emphasizing empirical observation in therapeutic applications.^[76] During the medieval and Renaissance periods in Europe, extract production evolved through alchemical practices that refined extraction techniques for pharmaceutical ends. In the 16th century, Paracelsus advanced the use of alchemical tinctures, pioneering the extraction of active principles from plants and minerals using solvents to create potent medicinals like laudanum, an opium tincture.^[77] This era also saw the introduction of alcohol, particularly distilled spirits, as a preferred solvent in Europe for creating stable tinctures, marking a shift toward more systematic and reproducible methods that bridged alchemy and early chemistry.^[78] The industrial era in the 19th century transformed extract production into a scalable enterprise, driven by technological innovations and commercialization. The 19th century brought innovations in steam distillation, enabling efficient large-scale extraction of volatile compounds from plants like lavender and rose, which fueled the burgeoning perfume and flavor industries. A pivotal advancement came in 1874 with the synthesis of vanillin from coniferyl derivatives by Ferdinand Tiemann and Wilhelm Haarmann, allowing the first industrial production of artificial vanilla extract and reducing reliance on natural sources.^[79] In the 20th and 21st centuries, extract production incorporated advanced technologies and regulatory frameworks amid growing global demand. Supercritical fluid extraction, developed in the 1960s using carbon dioxide as a solvent, offered a cleaner alternative for isolating sensitive compounds without heat degradation, particularly for essential oils and pharmaceuticals.^[80] The 1970s onward witnessed the rise of organic certification programs, beginning with state-level initiatives in the U.S. like Oregon's 1972 law, which standardized sustainable extraction practices to meet consumer preferences for pesticide-free products.^[81] Key milestones included the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which mandated safety demonstrations for drug extracts under FDA oversight, and the post-World War II era's surge in global trade, where economic recovery and lowered barriers propelled exports of natural and synthetic extracts to new heights. In recent years, as of 2025, innovations like ultrasound-assisted extraction and stricter EU sustainability regulations under the Green Deal have further advanced eco-friendly production methods.^[82]^[83]

Standards, Safety, and Legal Frameworks

Quality standards for extracts, particularly those used in pharmaceuticals, dietary supplements, and essential oils, are established to ensure purity and consistency. The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) and National Formulary (NF) provide monographs that specify limits for elemental impurities, such as lead, with thresholds often set below 10 ppm in herbal extracts and dietary supplements to minimize health risks from chronic exposure.^[84] For essential oils, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) through Technical Committee 54 develops specifications and analytical methods, including individual standards like ISO 4719 for lavender oil, which define composition, purity, and testing protocols to verify authenticity and quality.^[85] Safety concerns surrounding extracts primarily involve potential allergens, adulteration, and toxicity. Nut-derived extracts, such as those from almonds or walnuts, pose significant allergen risks, as tree nuts are among the major food allergens requiring strict avoidance in sensitive individuals to prevent anaphylaxis.^[86] Adulteration with cheaper synthetic or vegetable oils is common in essential oils, detectable through advanced techniques like nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, which identifies molecular inconsistencies without destructive sampling.^[87] Certain extracts, such as wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), contain thujone, a neurotoxic compound that can cause convulsions and renal failure at high doses, necessitating rigorous monitoring to stay below safe intake levels.^[88] Regulatory oversight is provided by key international bodies to safeguard public health. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) maintains a Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) list for food-grade extracts, affirming substances like vanilla or peppermint extracts as safe for direct addition to foods when used within specified limits.^[89] The European Union's Cosmetics Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 mandates safety assessments for cosmetic extracts, restricting impurities like heavy metals and prohibiting certain allergens to ensure product stability and consumer safety.^[90] The World Health Organization (WHO) issues guidelines for herbal medicines, emphasizing good manufacturing practices (GMP) and quality control for extracts, including standardization of active markers and contaminant limits to promote global harmonization.^[91] Labeling requirements distinguish extract types to inform consumers and prevent misrepresentation. Under FDA regulations in 21 CFR 101.22, "natural flavor" applies to extracts derived from plant, animal, or microbial sources via physical processes, while "artificial flavor" denotes those from non-natural origins or synthetic mimics, with mandatory declaration if either constitutes a significant flavor component.^[92] Organic certification under the USDA National Organic Program (NOP) requires extracts to use approved solvents and sourcing from certified organic materials, verified through annual audits to uphold integrity claims on labels.^[93] Environmental and ethical considerations address sustainability in extract sourcing. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates trade in extracts from threatened plants like Indian sandalwood (Santalum album), listed in Appendix II to prevent overexploitation and ensure non-detriment to wild populations through export permits and quotas.^[94]

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