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Clove
Clove
Clove
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Clove
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Myrtales
Family: Myrtaceae
Genus: Syzygium
Species:
S. aromaticum
Binomial name
Syzygium aromaticum
Synonyms[1]
  • Caryophyllus aromaticus L.
  • Eugenia aromatica (L.) Baill.
  • Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb.
  • Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.) Bullock & S.G.Harrison
  • Jambosa caryophyllus (Thunb.) Nied.

Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum (/sɪˈzɪdʒiːəm ˌærəˈmætɪkəm/).[2][3] They are native to the Maluku Islands, or Moluccas, in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice, flavoring, or fragrance in consumer products, such as toothpaste, soaps, or cosmetics.[4][5] Cloves are available throughout the year owing to different harvest seasons across various countries.[6]

Etymology

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The word clove, first used in English in the 15th century, derives via Middle English clow of gilofer,[7] Anglo-French clowes de gilofre and Old French clou de girofle, from the Latin word clavus "nail".[8][9] The related English word gillyflower, originally meaning "clove", derives[10] via said Old French girofle and Latin caryophyllon, from the Greek karyophyllon "clove", literally "nut leaf".[11][7]

Description

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The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8–12 metres (26–39 ft) tall, with large leaves and crimson flowers grouped in terminal clusters. The flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1.5–2 centimetres (5⁄8–3⁄4 in) long, and consist of a long calyx that terminates in four spreading sepals, and four unopened petals that form a small central ball.

Clove stalks are slender stems of the inflorescence axis that show opposite decussate branching. Externally, they are brownish, rough, and irregularly wrinkled longitudinally with short fracture and dry, woody texture. Mother cloves (anthophylli) are the ripe fruits of cloves that are ovoid, brown berries, unilocular and one-seeded. Blown cloves are expanded flowers from which both corollae and stamens have been detached. Exhausted cloves have most or all the oil removed by distillation.[citation needed]

Uses

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Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Dried cloves
Clove tree flowerbuds
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on

Cloves are used in the cuisine of Asian, African, Mediterranean, and the Near and Middle East countries, lending flavor to meats (such as baked ham), curries, and marinades, as well as fruit (such as apples, pears, and rhubarb). Cloves may be used to give aromatic and flavor qualities to hot beverages, often combined with other ingredients such as lemon and sugar. They are a common element in spice blends (as part of the Malay rempah empat beradik –"four sibling spices"– besides cinnamon, cardamom and star anise for example[12]), including pumpkin pie spice and speculaas spices.

In Mexican cuisine, cloves are best known as clavos de olor, and often accompany cumin and cinnamon.[13] They are also used in Peruvian cuisine, in a wide variety of dishes such as carapulcra and arroz con leche.

A major component of clove's taste is imparted by the chemical eugenol,[14] and the quantity of the spice required is typically small. It pairs well with cinnamon, allspice, vanilla, red wine, basil, onion, citrus peel, star anise, and peppercorns.

Non-culinary uses

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It is often added to betel quids to enhance aroma while chewing.[15] The spice is used in a type of cigarette called kretek in Indonesia.[1] Clove cigarettes were smoked throughout Europe, Asia, and the United States. Clove cigarettes are currently classified in the United States as cigars,[16] the result of a ban on flavored cigarettes in September 2009.[17]

Clove essential oil may be used to inhibit mold growth on various types of foods.[18] In addition to these non-culinary uses of clove, it can be used to protect wood in a system for cultural heritage conservation, and showed the efficacy of clove essential oil to be higher than a boron-based wood preservative.[19] Cloves can be used to make a fragrant pomander when combined with an orange. When given as a gift in Victorian England, such a pomander indicated warmth of feeling.

Cloves drying in sun

Adverse effects and potential uses

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The use of clove for any medicinal purpose has not been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, and its use may cause adverse effects if taken orally by people with liver disease, blood clotting and immune system disorders, or food allergies.[5]

Cloves are used in traditional medicine as an essential oil, which is intended to be an anodyne (analgesic) mainly for dental emergencies.[20] There is evidence that clove oil containing eugenol is effective for toothache pain and other types of pain.[5][21][22] Clove essential oil may prevent the growth of Enterococcus faecalis bacteria which may be present in an unsuccessful root canal treatment.[23]

One review reported the efficacy of eugenol combined with zinc oxide as an analgesic for alveolar osteitis.[24] Studies to determine its effectiveness for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent, and to prevent premature ejaculation have been inconclusive.[5][21] It remains unproven whether blood sugar levels are reduced by cloves or clove oil.[21] The essential oil may be used in aromatherapy.[5]

History

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Austronesian proto-historic and historic maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean[25]

Until the colonial era, cloves only grew on a few islands in the Moluccas (historically called the Spice Islands), including Bacan, Makian, Moti, Ternate, and Tidore.[26]

Cloves were first traded by the Austronesian peoples in the Austronesian maritime trade network (which began around 1500 BC, later becoming the Maritime Silk Road and part of the Spice Trade).[citation needed] The first notable example of modern clove farming developed on the east coast of Madagascar, and is cultivated in three separate ways, a monoculture, agricultural parklands, and agroforestry systems.[27]

Archaeologist Giorgio Buccellati found cloves in Terqa, Syria, in a burned-down house which was dated to 1720 BC during the kingdom of Khana. This was the first evidence of cloves being used in the west before Roman times. The discovery was first reported in 1978.[28][29][30][31] They reached Rome by the first century AD.[32][33][34]

Other archeological finds of cloves include: At the Batujaya site a single clove was found in a waterlogged layer dating to between the 100s BC to 200s BC corresponding to the Buni culture phase of this site.[35] A study at the site of Óc Eo in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam found starch grains of cloves on stone implements used in food processing. This site was occupied from the first to eighth century BC, and was a trading center for the kingdom of Funnan.[36] Two cloves were found during archaeological excavations at the Sri Lankan city of Mantai dated to around 900–1100 AD.[37][38]

Cloves are mentioned in the Ramayana.[39] Cloves are also mentioned in the Charaka Samhita.[35][40] One of the earliest examples of literary evidence of cloves in China is from the book the Han Guan Yi (Etiquettes of the Officialdom of the Han Dynasty, dating to around 200 BC). The book states a rule that ministers should suck cloves to sweeten their breath before speaking to the emperor.[citation needed] From Chinese records during the Song Dynasty (960 to 1279 AD) cloves were primarily imported by private ventures, called Merchant Shipping Offices, who bought goods from middlemen in the Austronesian polities of Java, Srivijaya, Champa, and Butuan. During the Yuan dynasty (1271 to 1368 AD) Chinese merchants began sending ships directly to the Moluccas to trade for cloves, and other spices.[36][41]

The Liber Pontificalis records an endowment made by Passinopolis under Pope Sylvester I. This endowment included an Egyptian estate, its annual revenues, 150 libra (around 50 kg or 108 lb) of cloves, and other amounts of spices and papyrus.[42] Cosmas Indicopleustis in his book Topographia Christiana outlined his travels to Sri Lanka, and recounted that the Indians said that cloves, among other products, came in from unspecified places along sea trade routes.[35][citation needed]

Cloves were also present in records in China, Sri Lanka, Southern India, Persia, and Oman by around the third century to second century BC.[32][33][34] These mentions of "cloves" reported in China, South Asia, and the Middle East come from before the establishment of Southeast Asian maritime trade. But all of these are misidentifications that referred to other plants (like cassia buds, cinnamon, or nutmeg); or are imports from Maritime Southeast Asia mistakenly identified as being natively produced in these regions.[41]

Archaeologists recovered the earliest known example of macro-botanical cloves in northwest Europe from the wreck of the Danish-Norwegian flagship, Gribshunden. The ship sank near Ronneby, Sweden in June 1495 while King Hans was sailing to political summit at Kalmar, Sweden. Exotic luxuries including cloves, ginger, peppercorns, and saffron would have impressed the noblemen and high church officials at the summit.[43]

Cloves have been documented in the burial practices of Europeans from the late middle ages into the early modern period. During renovations on the Grote Kerk of Breda a tomb was rediscovered that was used between 1475 and 1526 AD by eight members of the house of Nassau. These burials had to be moved, but before being re-interred these burials were studied for botanical remains. The burial of Cimberga van Baden contained pollen from cloves. The Dutch Physician Pieter Van Foreest wrote down multiple recipes for embalming some of which included cloves. One of these recipes he wrote down was that used by his fellow physicians Spierinck and Goethals.[44] An embalming jar associated with Vittoria della Rovere also contained clove pollen. This probably came from her ingestion of clove oil as a medicine in her final days.[45][46][47] When burials needed to be moved from the church of Saint Germain in Flers, France they were also studied for botanical remains. The body and coffin of Philippe René de la Motte Ango, count of Flers who was buried in 1737 AD contained whole cloves.[48]

During the colonial era, cloves were traded like oil, with an enforced limit on exportation.[49] As the Dutch East India Company consolidated its control of the spice trade in the 17th century, they sought to gain a monopoly in cloves as they had in nutmeg. However, "unlike nutmeg and mace, which were limited to the minute Bandas, clove trees grew all over the Moluccas, and the trade in cloves was beyond the limited policing powers of the corporation".[50] One clove tree named Afo that experts believe is the oldest in the world on Ternate may be 350–400 years old.[49] Tourists are told that seedlings from this very tree were stolen by a Frenchman named Pierre Poivre in 1770, transferred to the Isle de France (Mauritius), and then later to Zanzibar, which was once the world's largest producer of cloves.[49]

Current leaders in clove production are Indonesia, Madagascar, Tanzania, Sri Lanka, and Comoros.[51] Indonesia is the largest clove producer, but only about 10–15% of its cloves production is exported, and domestic shortfalls must sometimes be filled with imports from Madagascar.[51] The modern province of Maluku remains the largest source of cloves in Indonesia with around 15% of national production, although provinces comprising the island of Sulawesi produced over 40% collectively.[52]

Phytochemicals

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The compound eugenol is responsible for most of the characteristic aroma of cloves.

Eugenol comprises 72–90% of the essential oil extracted from cloves, and is the compound most responsible for clove aroma.[14][53] Complete extraction occurs at 80 minutes in pressurized water at 125 °C (257 °F).[54] Ultrasound-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction methods provide more rapid extraction rates with lower energy costs.[55]

Other phytochemicals of clove oil include acetyl eugenol, beta-caryophyllene, vanillin, crategolic acid, tannins, such as bicornin,[14][56] gallotannic acid, methyl salicylate, the flavonoids eugenin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, and eugenitin, triterpenoids such as oleanolic acid, stigmasterol, and campesterol and several sesquiterpenes.[5] Although eugenol has not been classified for its potential toxicity,[53] it was shown to be toxic to test organisms in concentrations of 50, 75, and 100 mg per liter.[57]

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See also

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Syzygium aromaticum.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Cloves".

References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Clove

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

Cloves are the aromatic, dried, unopened flower buds of the evergreen tree Syzygium aromaticum (family Myrtaceae), a medium-sized species native to the Maluku Islands of Indonesia that typically reaches heights of 8-12 meters. The buds, harvested manually before flowering and sun-dried until they turn dark brown, contain high concentrations of eugenol, a phenolic compound responsible for their distinctive pungent flavor and fragrance, as well as their antimicrobial and analgesic properties. Culinary uses span savory dishes, baked goods, and beverages like mulled wine, while medicinally, clove oil derived from the buds has been applied topically for toothache relief and as a preservative due to its inhibitory effects on bacterial growth. Indonesia leads global production, yielding about 146 thousand metric tons in 2023, far surpassing outputs from Madagascar, Tanzania, and other tropical cultivators, with the spice's economic value historically driving intense European competition, including Dutch monopolization efforts in the 17th century to dominate Maluku supplies.

Botany

Botanical Classification and Description

Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry is the accepted scientific name for the clove , classified in the family . Its taxonomic hierarchy places it within Kingdom Plantae, Phylum Tracheophyta, Class Magnoliopsida, Order , Genus . The species is native to the of and thrives in wet tropical biomes as a or . The clove tree is an that typically reaches heights of 8 to 12 meters, though it can grow up to 20 meters with a trunk of around 30 cm. It features a pyramidal or rounded crown with semi-erect branches. The bark is grayish, and the wood is dense and durable. Leaves are simple, opposite, and lanceolate to ovate, measuring 10 to 18 cm long and 4 to 7 cm wide, with a glossy, leathery texture on the upper surface and aromatic glands that release a clove-like scent when crushed. Flowers occur in terminal cymose panicles, featuring four sepals and petals, numerous bright red to pink stamens, and unopened flower buds that are harvested as the spice cloves, measuring about 1.5 to 2 cm long. The fruit is a 1-seeded, olive-shaped that turns purple upon ripening, though it is rarely utilized. All parts of the , including leaves, buds, and bark, emit a characteristic aromatic fragrance due to content.

Cultivation and Habitat

The clove tree (), an evergreen species of the family, is native to the (also known as the Moluccas or Spice Islands) in , where it inhabits maritime forests featuring deep, well-drained sandy loams with acidic pH levels as low as 4.5. These trees, reaching heights of 10 to 20 meters, prefer environments with high humidity and consistent warmth, reflecting their adaptation to ecosystems. Clove cultivation demands a with temperatures ranging from 20 to 32 °C, where frost is absent and short dips below 18 °C can stunt growth. Annual rainfall of 1500 to 3000 mm is essential, distributed evenly to maintain without waterlogging, and elevations from to 900–1000 meters are suitable, though optimal growth occurs below 200 meters in coastal zones. Soils must be deep, fertile loams or semi-forest black loams rich in , with good drainage and a of 5.5 to 6.5; red midland soils can suffice if amended for fertility. Young trees benefit from partial shade to establish robust root systems extending up to 1.5 meters deep. Principal cultivation regions today encompass Indonesia's original habitats, expanded to , (Tanzania), southern ( and ), , and parts of and , where similar humid tropical conditions prevail. These areas support commercial production through seed or cuttings, with trees yielding buds after 5–7 years and peaking at 20–30 years under proper . Challenges include susceptibility to stress in shallow soils and pests like leaf-eating beetles, necessitating deep-rooted planting sites for resilience.

History

Etymology

The English term "clove" for the spice denotes the dried, unopened flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum and entered the language in the 15th century via Middle English clow of gilofer, derived from Anglo-French clowes de gilofre and Old French clou de girofle, literally "nail of clove-tree." The "clou" element traces to Latin clavus, meaning "nail," due to the buds' distinctive nail-like shape, with a rounded head and slender stem. The "girofle" or "gilofre" portion originates from girofle, adapted from Latin caryophyllon, which itself stems from Greek karyophyllon ("nut leaf"), an early descriptive name for the clove tree's fruit or buds. This reflects ancient botanical observations, as Greek káruon (nut) combined with phúllon (leaf) to describe the plant's . Distinct from the spice, the term "clove" applied to segments of or onion bulbs derives from clufu, related to the verb "cleave" and Proto-Indo-European roots implying separation or splitting, unrelated to the Latin nail .

Origins and Ancient Trade

The clove tree ( aromaticum) is endemic to the (also known as the Moluccas or Spice Islands) in present-day , particularly the northern region encompassing islands such as , , Bacan, and the western coast of . These volcanic islands provided the ideal for the evergreen tree, which produces the spice from its dried, unopened flower buds. Genetic evidence confirms the species' wild origins in this archipelago, with no evidence of pre-human cultivation outside it until later introductions. The earliest documented reference to cloves appears in Chinese texts from the , dating to the 3rd century BCE, where the spice—known as hi-sho-hiang or "chicken-tongue aromatic"—was valued for its fragrance. By around 200 BCE, Chinese courtiers reportedly held cloves in their mouths to freshen breath before addressing the emperor, indicating established import routes from . Trade likely began through Austronesian maritime networks connecting the to via intermediate ports in the and , though the precise source remained obscure to Chinese traders. Cloves reached the and by the late centuries BCE, as evidenced by textual and archaeological traces suggesting integration into early spice blends. intermediaries facilitated further westward diffusion across the , introducing the spice to the by the 1st century CE. In , cloves were prized for medicinal uses, with the physician (c. 129–216 CE) incorporating clove oil into ointments for its properties. This ancient , conducted via monsoon-driven sailing routes from Indonesian origins through and the , commanded high prices due to the spice's rarity and the perilous, multi-stage journeys, often yielding profits equivalent to gold by weight in distant markets.

Colonial Trade and Expansion

The arrival of European powers in the , the primary source of cloves, marked a pivotal shift in the spice's trade dynamics during the . Portuguese explorers, having navigated the route around , reached the islands in 1512, identifying Syzygium aromaticum as the origin of the valuable buds previously obtained indirectly through Arab and Indian intermediaries. This discovery enabled to establish fortified trading posts on islands such as and , securing a near-monopoly on clove exports to for approximately 90 years, during which the spice commanded prices equivalent to its weight in gold due to restricted supply and high demand for preservation and medicinal uses. The Dutch challenged dominance in the early , culminating in the formation of the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC) in 1602, granted exclusive rights by the to conduct trade east of the . The VOC rapidly expanded through military campaigns, capturing Ambon from the in 1605 and expelling them from by 1606, thereby assuming control of clove production centered on a few islands like , , and Bacan. To maintain scarcity and maximize profits—cloves accounting for a significant portion of VOC revenues in the mid-—the company enforced a strict monopoly by razing clove trees on unauthorized islands, confining cultivation to designated areas under contract with local sultans, and imposing quotas that limited annual harvests to around 1,000-2,000 bahars (approximately 60,000-120,000 kilograms). This monopolistic strategy, while economically lucrative, involved brutal enforcement, including forced relocations of populations and suppression of smuggling, which strained local economies and provoked resistance, such as the 1650s revolts in the Ambon region. British and French interests mounted challenges, with the English East India Company gaining footholds in nearby areas but failing to displace Dutch clove control until the Napoleonic Wars disrupted VOC operations in the early 19th century. The monopoly eroded in the 1770s when French botanist Pierre Poivre facilitated the smuggling of clove seedlings to Île de France (modern Mauritius), enabling cultivation outside Maluku and spreading to Zanzibar and other tropical regions by the early 1800s, which democratized supply and reduced prices by over 90% in Europe within decades. These colonial rivalries not only propelled European imperial expansion into Southeast Asia but also exemplified early corporate statecraft, with the VOC deploying private armies and navies to safeguard trade routes spanning from the Indian Ocean to Amsterdam.

Production and Economics

Global Production Statistics

Indonesia dominates global clove production, accounting for approximately 70% of the world's output, with annual production estimated at 110,000 to 145,000 metric tons as of 2023. Total worldwide production exceeded 149,000 metric tons in 2023, primarily from tropical regions suitable for the clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum). Production volumes fluctuate due to factors such as weather variability, disease outbreaks, and domestic demand, particularly in where much of the harvest supports the cigarette industry. The following table summarizes production by leading countries based on recent estimates:
CountryProduction (metric tons, approximate)
133,955
24,308
8,562
7,278
5,722
Other producers including , , , and contribute smaller shares, often below 5,000 metric tons each annually, with global output concentrated in fewer than ten nations due to the crop's specific agro-climatic requirements. Despite Indonesia's lead, export volumes are lower from there compared to , reflecting high internal consumption. Recent data indicate modest growth in Indonesian production, up 2.18% year-over-year in 2023, though climate challenges pose risks to long-term yields.

Major Producing Regions and Challenges

Indonesia dominates global clove production, accounting for approximately 73.5% of the world's supply in 2023, with an output of 145,900 metric tons primarily from the islands of , , and Maluku. The country's clove cultivation benefits from ideal tropical climates with high and rainfall, but production is concentrated among smallholder farmers who often rely on traditional methods. Madagascar ranks second, contributing about 13.2% of global production in 2023, with cultivation centered in the eastern rainforests where the tree's native habitat supports high yields. follows as the third-largest producer at roughly 4.6%, mainly from and , where clove trees cover significant portions of and form a key . Smaller producers include , , and , though their combined output remains under 10% globally. Clove production faces significant challenges from climate variability, particularly in Indonesia, where erratic rainfall, prolonged droughts, and rising temperatures have reduced tree productivity and increased post-harvest losses since the early 2020s. Pests such as the clove weevil and diseases like sudden wilt exacerbate yields, compounded by limited access to resistant varieties and modern agronomic practices among smallholders. Market fluctuations, including volatile prices driven by oversupply or demand shifts for clove cigarettes (kretek), further strain farmers, with Indonesian production growth slowing to 2.18% in 2023 amid these pressures. In Madagascar and Tanzania, similar issues arise from deforestation for fuelwood in processing and inadequate infrastructure, hindering sustainable scaling despite export potential.

Chemical Composition

Primary Phytochemicals

The primary phytochemicals in clove ( aromaticum) flower buds are concentrated in the , which accounts for 10-20% of the dry bud weight and consists mainly of volatile phenylpropanoids. , a phenolic compound responsible for the characteristic aroma and bioactivity, dominates the oil composition at 70-90%. This high eugenol content varies slightly by bud maturity, geographic origin, and extraction method, with reported levels ranging from 68.7% to 87.4% in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses of bud oils. Eugenyl acetate, an acetylated derivative of , typically comprises 5-15% of the , contributing to flavor stability. β-Caryophyllene, a , follows as a significant component at 5-21%, often around 8-13%, and exhibits properties independent of receptors. Minor constituents include α-humulene (up to 7%), α-copaene (about 1%), and traces of other sesquiterpenes like β-caryophyllene oxide, collectively making up the remaining 10-20%. Beyond volatiles, clove buds contain non-volatile s such as (10-13% of dry weight), which impart astringency, and like and glycosides, though these are secondary to the fractions in terms of characteristic composition. Fixed oils (5-10%) include fatty acids, but the profile is defined primarily by the oxygenated monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes in the steam-distilled .
Major CompoundTypical Range in Essential Oil (%)Key Properties
Eugenol70-90Phenolic, ,
Eugenyl acetate5-15 , flavor enhancer
β-Caryophyllene5-21,

Clove Oil and Extraction

Clove oil, the derived from aromaticum, is predominantly extracted from the dried flower buds, though and stem oils are also produced commercially. The primary industrial method is , where dried buds are subjected to steam, volatilizing the oil components, which are then condensed and separated from the hydrosol. This process typically yields 5–15% oil by weight from buds, with reported values ranging from 7.16% v/w to 14.2% v/w depending on bud quality and distillation conditions. In , approximately 25 grams of ground dried are placed in a distillation apparatus with steam passed through for 3–6 hours, followed by extraction of the distillate with solvents like n-hexane or to isolate the oil phase. Alternative methods include hydrodistillation, which combines water and plant material directly, and supercritical CO₂ extraction at pressures around 90 bar and 50°C, offering higher selectivity but higher costs and less widespread adoption. oil is preferred for its superior quality, with leaf oil yielding lower content and used more for bulk production in regions like and . The chemical profile of clove bud oil is dominated by eugenol, comprising 68–95% of the total composition, alongside eugenyl acetate (5–15%) and β-caryophyllene (3–10%). Eugenol content peaks in oils from buds harvested at the flowering stage, reaching up to 82.38%, while extraction variations like microwave-assisted hydrodistillation can enhance yield and purity. Globally, Indonesia leads production, with capacities exceeding 2,500 tons annually for leaf oil alone, driven by simple steam distillation setups among small-scale processors.

Culinary Applications

Flavor Profile and Common Uses

Cloves possess an intensely warming flavor profile dominated by , the primary compound in their , which imparts notes of sweetness, pungency, and slight bitterness. The spice's taste combines spicy heat with fruity undertones, evoking hints of , pepper, and woodiness, while its aroma is markedly medicinal and minty. This potent character requires judicious application, as even small quantities can dominate dishes due to the buds' high oil content, estimated at 15-20%. In savory cooking, whole cloves are frequently studded into meats such as for glazing or , added to stews, curries, and rice preparations like to infuse depth during slow simmering. They enhance braised dishes, soups, and marinades, often paired with onions in or directly in recipes like for complexity. For sweet applications, ground cloves feature prominently in baked goods including pumpkin pies, gingerbread, spice cakes, and fruit compotes, where they harmonize with , , and . Cloves also aromatize beverages such as mulled cider, chai tea, and hot toddies, contributing warmth ideal for seasonal drinks. Across traditions, their versatility extends to , sausages, and spiced fruits, underscoring the spice's role in balancing sweet-savory profiles without overwhelming subtlety.

Regional Culinary Traditions

In , cloves (laung in ) are a cornerstone spice, essential to blends and frequently used whole to infuse biryanis, curries, pilafs, and meat dishes with their pungent, warming aroma across both North and South Indian regional variations. Ground cloves appear in pickles, chutneys, and sweets, where they contribute preservative qualities and sharp depth, as evidenced by their role in traditional recipes dating back centuries. Indonesian culinary traditions heavily incorporate cloves (cengkeh), leveraging the archipelago's status as a top producer to flavor savory staples like —a slow-simmered —soto soups, curries, and , where whole buds release for aromatic complexity during cooking. Cloves also enhance desserts, beverages, and spice pastes, reflecting their integration into daily meals since pre-colonial trade eras. In Middle Eastern cooking, cloves feature in —a versatile blend with , , , and —used to season grilled meats, stews, rice pilafs, and pastries, adding a sweet-spicy intensity that demands measured application to avoid bitterness. This usage traces to ancient trade routes, where cloves complemented regional flavors in Levantine and Yemeni dishes like spiced lamb or infusions. European traditions employ cloves in both sweet and savory contexts, such as studding whole baked hams with buds for roasts, simmering in mulled wines and ciders, or grinding into pickling spices and baked goods like , fruit pies, and , where they mask gaminess and enhance warming notes in recipes from onward. In East African cuisine around , a historic clove hub, they perfume pilafs, stews, and teas, blending indigenous and Arab-influenced preparations tied to 19th-century plantations. Cloves also integrate into East Asian blends like Chinese five-spice powder, where they balance star , , , and in marinades for roasted ducks or pork, providing subtle bitterness amid sweet-savory profiles.

Non-Culinary and Industrial Uses

Traditional and Medicinal Applications

Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum) have been utilized in systems worldwide for their purported , , , and warming effects, primarily attributed to the buds' high content. Historical records indicate their use dating back centuries in treating digestive ailments such as , , , and disorders, as well as liver and bowel issues. In ancient trade routes, cloves were valued not only as a spice but for therapeutic applications, including as a and agent in folk remedies. In Ayurvedic medicine, cloves, referred to as Lavanga, are classified as a pungent, heating herb that balances kapha and vata doshas, employed to enhance digestion, relieve abdominal pain, and support respiratory health by expelling excess mucus. Traditional formulations often incorporate clove powder or oil for treating coughs, colds, and flatulence, with texts emphasizing its role in stimulating agni (digestive fire). Similarly, in Traditional Chinese Medicine, cloves (ding xiang) are regarded as acrid and warm, used to tonify yang, descend rebellious qi, and alleviate symptoms like chronic cough, sore throat, and diarrhea by warming the middle jiao. Unani medicine, drawing from Greco-Arabic traditions, employs cloves (Qaranful) for their muqawwi (strengthening) and mudirr (expelling) properties, particularly in compounds for , halitosis, and parasitic infections including intestinal parasites, leveraging their qualities. Across these systems, clove oil extracted from buds has been a staple for oral health, applied topically to numb dental pain and combat infections due to eugenol's local and antibacterial actions, a practice corroborated by historical accounts of its efficacy in emergency dental care. Medicinally, clove preparations have been used for gastrointestinal relief, including and , with proposed to soothe mucosal irritation, though empirical validation remains limited beyond anecdotal and preliminary studies. Clove water is prepared by soaking 4–6 whole cloves in a cup of warm water overnight, or by boiling them briefly and straining; it is typically consumed as 1 cup daily, ideally in the morning or at night. For respiratory issues, infusions or smokes of cloves traditionally addressed and by acting as expectorants, while their properties supported and parasite expulsion in ethnomedical contexts, where cloves are employed in traditional remedies to combat and expel intestinal parasites such as helminths. These applications persist in herbal pharmacopeias, but efficacy claims often rely on traditional rather than large-scale clinical trials.

Modern Industrial and Pharmaceutical Uses

Clove oil, primarily composed of (70-90%), serves as a key ingredient in modern industrial applications due to its aromatic, , and properties. In the fragrance and perfumery sector, clove bud oil contributes spicy, warm middle notes to formulations, enhancing complex scents in perfumes, , and . It is also incorporated into soaps, lotions, and skincare products for its potential to inhibit mold and while improving appearance, though efficacy varies by concentration and formulation. In and , clove leaf oil's content provides insecticidal and repellent effects, finding use in natural pesticides to target pests without synthetic residues. Pharmaceutically, clove extracts and oil are employed mainly for dental applications, leveraging eugenol's local anesthetic and antiseptic actions. Clinical and in vitro studies demonstrate clove oil's efficacy in alleviating toothache by numbing pain and reducing inflammation when applied topically to cavities or gums, with eugenol inhibiting bacterial decalcification of teeth. Mouth rinses containing 1.6% clove oil exhibit antibacterial effects against cariogenic bacteria, supporting its role in caries prevention and periodontal care. Broader evidence for systemic uses, such as anti-inflammatory or wound-healing effects, remains largely preclinical, with animal models showing antinociceptive benefits from clove emulsions but limited human trials confirming causal efficacy beyond topical relief. Regulatory bodies like the FDA recognize eugenol as generally safe for limited medicinal use, but high doses risk hepatotoxicity, underscoring the need for standardized extracts in pharmaceutical products.

Health Effects

Evidence-Based Benefits

Clove , primarily composed of , exhibits potent activity against a range of bacteria and fungi, including oral pathogens such as and , as demonstrated in multiple studies. This property supports its traditional use as an in dental care, where eugenol-containing formulations inhibit microbial growth and formation on surfaces. Eugenol provides effects through , particularly effective for alleviating and postoperative dental pain; clinical applications include its incorporation into zinc oxide-eugenol mixtures for temporary dental restorations and , where it reduces and nerve sensitivity via inhibition of voltage-gated sodium channels. studies on clove oil's topical use for oral and show reduced pain scores and improved healing, attributed to its action that suppresses pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6 in human dermal fibroblasts. Antioxidant capacity of cloves, driven by high phenolic content including and , neutralizes free radicals and enhances cellular , with in vitro assays indicating superior activity compared to synthetic antioxidants like BHT. Preliminary evidence from animal models suggests protective effects against oxidative stress-induced liver and metabolic damage, though human clinical trials remain limited and do not yet confirm systemic benefits from dietary intake. mechanisms involve modulation of pathways, reducing edema and tissue remodeling in preclinical wound-healing models. Preliminary studies have also explored the antiparasitic properties of clove essential oil and eugenol. In vitro research has shown that eugenol disrupts the intracellular development of Plasmodium falciparum during the erythrocytic cycle and exhibits activity against parasites such as Trichinella spiralis by achieving high efficacy in killing larvae. Animal models, including studies in goats, indicate potential for reducing gastrointestinal parasite burdens through the corrosive effects on parasite cuticles. However, human clinical trials are limited, and there is insufficient evidence to support the use of cloves as an antiparasitic agent in humans.

Toxicity and Adverse Effects

Clove oil, primarily composed of , exhibits significant toxicity when ingested in quantities exceeding therapeutic doses, with reported cases of overdose leading to acute symptoms including agitation, seizures, , respiratory distress, and . Ingestion of 10-30 mL has precipitated rapid-onset and hepatic , as documented in clinical reports of near-fatal clove oil ing involving and . The oral LD50 for clove oil in animal models is approximately 3597.5 mg/kg, though adverse effects occur at lower thresholds due to eugenol's hepatotoxic and neurotoxic properties. Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects further constrain safe consumption levels, potentially damaging cellular structures at high exposures. Topical application of undiluted clove oil can induce local irritation, including burning, , and damage to , gums, or tooth pulp, owing to eugenol's irritant and cytotoxic action on fibroblasts and soft tissues. Allergic reactions, though uncommon, range from to rare immediate-type responses such as urticaria, , or anaphylaxis-like symptoms upon exposure. Clove consumption or supplementation may exacerbate bleeding risks in individuals with coagulopathies, as eugenol inhibits platelet aggregation and prolongs clotting time, potentially interacting with anticoagulants like or antiplatelet agents such as aspirin and ibuprofen. Concurrent use with other hemostasis-affecting substances, including supplements like dong quai, heightens hemorrhage potential. Inhalation of clove-derived smoke, as in cigarettes, correlates with pulmonary irritation and systemic toxicity beyond that of standard . Children and those with pre-existing liver conditions face amplified risks from even modest exposures.

Use in Tobacco Products and Associated Risks

Cloves are primarily used in cigarettes, a type originating in that combines with ground clove buds, typically comprising 20-40% cloves by weight alongside 60-80% . These cigarettes produce a characteristic spicy aroma from , the primary volatile compound in cloves, which constitutes up to 20% of dried clove content. account for a significant portion of cigarette consumption in , where they are both hand-rolled and machine-produced. The health risks of cigarettes mirror those of conventional products, including from , , and various cancers due to and other carcinogens in the smoke. However, deliver higher levels of , , and compared to standard U.S. cigarettes, as measured in smoking machine tests. in clove smoke acts as a mild , potentially numbing the and enabling deeper inhalation, which may increase exposure to toxins. Acute respiratory illnesses have been linked to clove cigarette use, with reports of 13 cases in the U.S. involving severe conditions such as hemorrhagic , , and respiratory distress, particularly in individuals with underlying infections. Animal toxicity studies indicate that inhalation can cause congestion, interstitial hemorrhages, and other damage, with lethal doses observed in at levels equivalent to heavy exposure. Systematic reviews conclude that pose health risks at least equivalent to regular s, with no evidence of reduced harm despite some assessments suggesting lower toxicity on a nicotine-equivalent basis. In the United States, clove cigarettes were banned in 2009 under the Family Smoking Prevention and Act as flavored products appealing to , though this addressed market dynamics rather than unique toxicological differences. Overall, the addition of cloves does not mitigate tobacco-related harms and may exacerbate certain exposures due to elevated emissions and altered behavior.

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