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Hyderabad Subah
Hyderabad Subah (Persian: صوبه حیدرآباد), also known as Golconda Subah, was a province of the Mughal Empire encompassing the eastern Deccan region of the Indian subcontinent. It was created in 1687, during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, by the annexation of the Golconda Sultanate. Hyderabad Subah later began to secede in the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined and became fully independent as part of the Nizam-administered Deccan.
The province was given the official epithet of Dar-ul Jihad (House of War) upon annexation by Aurangzeb.
The precedent for Hyderabad Subah lies in the reign of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, who in 1636 negotiated a deed of submission with the Golconda Sultanate (reigned by the Qutb Shahis), making them tributaries to the Mughals. This was part of a larger imperial project to establish authority in the Deccan; the Ahmadnagar Sultanate had just been annexed, and the Bijapur Sultanate was facing similar pressure from the Mughals. Over the next few decades, Shah Jahan maintained this tributary relationship, though under stress from a faction of the court to formally annex the sultanates. Aurangzeb, a son of Shah Jahan and future emperor, was a key proponent of this, and events in 1656 led to him orchestrating an attack on the Sultanate, which was recalled by his father following a peace agreement. After Aurangzeb himself ascended the throne, he attacked the Golconda Sultanate, leading to the eight-month Siege of Golconda and Mughal victory in 1687; the Sultanate was incorporated into the Mughal Empire. This was the culmination of Mughal policy in the Deccan, and the fulfilment of a long-standing initiative of Aurangzeb.
Following the annexation of the Golconda Sultanate, its territories were incorporated into the empire. Particularly, Aurangzeb split the Sultanate into two; the main territory of Golconda (twenty districts to the north of the Krishna River) was made into Hyderabad Subah, while the twelve districts south of this (termed the Karnatik-i-Hyderabadi or Hyderabad-Karnatik) were made into its administrative unit, not fully a province. Aurangzeb initially retained many Qutb Shahi officers in their former positions across the province, mostly for propaganda effect, to make the Mughals' authority seem amicable to the old political order. To this end, the first subahdar (governor) of Hyderabad was Muhammad Ibrahim, a leading general of Golconda who had defected to the Mughals during its conquest of Golconda. Within two months however, Aurangzeb concluded this policy and transported many Golconda officials to other parts of the empire, stationing Mughal officers in their stead; Ruhullah Khan, chief bakhshi (paymaster) of the empire, was made temporary governor of the province.
In less than a year, Aurangzeb replaced Ruhullah Khan with a noble named Jan Sipar Khan, previously faujdar at Bidar. His son Rustam Dil Khan acted as deputy. During the first four years of its existence, Hyderabad Subah faced continual raids by Marathas since the region was no longer protected by the treaties between the Marathas and the Golconda Sultan. Aurangzeb did not provide much assistance with this, as he was more concerned with political instability in the Hyderabad Karnatik. Hyderabad also faced internal turmoil due to the disobedience of local zamindars, who raided and plundered villages. Starting in 1691 however, the governor and other Hyderabad officials began to be able to win battles with these zamindars. In 1692, the Maratha raids largely came to an end, as the focus of the Mughal-Maratha war shifted to Gingee. These factors ushered in a period of relative peace in the province of Hyderabad for the next seven years, as Hyderabad's officials tried to forge conciliatory relationships with the zamindars and deshmukhs of the province, to some success. However, the Hyderabad administration was unsuccessful in incorporating the Telugu chiefs and warrior class into the Mughal order.
Jan Sipar Khan served as governor for twelve years, following which he died in office. Aurangzeb appointed his son Kam Bakhsh as the new governor. Kam Bakhsh served in absentee, though he maintained an active interest in Hyderabad Subah due to the several wealthy jagirs he owned in the region. In his stead, Jan Sipar Khan's son Rustam Dil Khan was appointed as deputy, making him the effective governor of the province. Beginning in 1700, Hyderabad Subah faced several raids again by Marathas, in addition to other local chiefs. Rustam Dil Khan was unable to respond to these challenges to Mughal authority - this apparent weakness also led banditry to become a prevalent issue in the province. All these resulted in a negative impact on the economy and revenue, as well as a breakdown in the local administration. Aurangzeb reduced Rustam Dil Khan's rank in punishment, and later even removed him from his post. He was returned to his post as effective governor in 1706, as Aurangzeb found difficulty in appointing officers with experience in the region. Aurangzeb also refused to assign more troops and military resources to Hyderabad Subah, since he needed them for his campaigns in the Deccan. Hence the period began to see an administrative breakdown, as officers of the province began to act in self-preservation rather than in service of the empire.
In 1707, Aurangzeb died, triggering a war of succession. Kam Bakhsh, who with the help of his father had been building authority in Hyderabad Subah, occupied the region and crowned himself independent king of Golconda. Rustam Dil Khan was confirmed in his old position as governor; however, he had been building up vast sums of money in the province during Aurangzeb's reign. When Kam Bakhsh attempted to confiscate this, he was met with resistance from the governor, and so had him executed. Kam Bakhsh in general placed great financial pressure on the province, to secure his position as King of Golconda. However, his brother Shah Alam (recently crowned as Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah, after the defeat of his brother Azam Shah), had been marching southwards to confront him, and in a decisive battle Kam Bakhsh was killed, continuing Hyderabad's status as a subah of the Mughal Empire.
The Mughal hold on Hyderabad was generally tenuous as emperor Bahadur Shah paid more attention to the problematic provinces in the north. The political instability of the previous year made local chiefs, zamindars, deshmukhs and the like to withhold the payment of taxes, leading to a breakdown in provincial administration. Bahadur Shah appointed Yusuf Khan, an Afghan mansabdar and previous faujdar of Kurnool, as governor of the province. The major campaign of his tenure was countering the notorious bandit Papadu (sarvai Papanna), who had risen to power and status during the war of succession following Aurangzeb's death. Yusuf Khan was able to defeat Papadu, a highly publicized event in the empire. Yusuf Khan went on to deal with other rebellious local chiefs; however, his tenure was financially unstable, as his military campaigns did not yield enough money to fund themselves, and payments to his troops remained in arrears. Yusuf Khan died in 1711, following which the position of governor was empty for a year - it was eventually filled by Ibrahim Khan, but financial insolvency and administrative breakdown only accelerated.
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Hyderabad Subah
Hyderabad Subah (Persian: صوبه حیدرآباد), also known as Golconda Subah, was a province of the Mughal Empire encompassing the eastern Deccan region of the Indian subcontinent. It was created in 1687, during the reign of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, by the annexation of the Golconda Sultanate. Hyderabad Subah later began to secede in the 18th century as the Mughal Empire declined and became fully independent as part of the Nizam-administered Deccan.
The province was given the official epithet of Dar-ul Jihad (House of War) upon annexation by Aurangzeb.
The precedent for Hyderabad Subah lies in the reign of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, who in 1636 negotiated a deed of submission with the Golconda Sultanate (reigned by the Qutb Shahis), making them tributaries to the Mughals. This was part of a larger imperial project to establish authority in the Deccan; the Ahmadnagar Sultanate had just been annexed, and the Bijapur Sultanate was facing similar pressure from the Mughals. Over the next few decades, Shah Jahan maintained this tributary relationship, though under stress from a faction of the court to formally annex the sultanates. Aurangzeb, a son of Shah Jahan and future emperor, was a key proponent of this, and events in 1656 led to him orchestrating an attack on the Sultanate, which was recalled by his father following a peace agreement. After Aurangzeb himself ascended the throne, he attacked the Golconda Sultanate, leading to the eight-month Siege of Golconda and Mughal victory in 1687; the Sultanate was incorporated into the Mughal Empire. This was the culmination of Mughal policy in the Deccan, and the fulfilment of a long-standing initiative of Aurangzeb.
Following the annexation of the Golconda Sultanate, its territories were incorporated into the empire. Particularly, Aurangzeb split the Sultanate into two; the main territory of Golconda (twenty districts to the north of the Krishna River) was made into Hyderabad Subah, while the twelve districts south of this (termed the Karnatik-i-Hyderabadi or Hyderabad-Karnatik) were made into its administrative unit, not fully a province. Aurangzeb initially retained many Qutb Shahi officers in their former positions across the province, mostly for propaganda effect, to make the Mughals' authority seem amicable to the old political order. To this end, the first subahdar (governor) of Hyderabad was Muhammad Ibrahim, a leading general of Golconda who had defected to the Mughals during its conquest of Golconda. Within two months however, Aurangzeb concluded this policy and transported many Golconda officials to other parts of the empire, stationing Mughal officers in their stead; Ruhullah Khan, chief bakhshi (paymaster) of the empire, was made temporary governor of the province.
In less than a year, Aurangzeb replaced Ruhullah Khan with a noble named Jan Sipar Khan, previously faujdar at Bidar. His son Rustam Dil Khan acted as deputy. During the first four years of its existence, Hyderabad Subah faced continual raids by Marathas since the region was no longer protected by the treaties between the Marathas and the Golconda Sultan. Aurangzeb did not provide much assistance with this, as he was more concerned with political instability in the Hyderabad Karnatik. Hyderabad also faced internal turmoil due to the disobedience of local zamindars, who raided and plundered villages. Starting in 1691 however, the governor and other Hyderabad officials began to be able to win battles with these zamindars. In 1692, the Maratha raids largely came to an end, as the focus of the Mughal-Maratha war shifted to Gingee. These factors ushered in a period of relative peace in the province of Hyderabad for the next seven years, as Hyderabad's officials tried to forge conciliatory relationships with the zamindars and deshmukhs of the province, to some success. However, the Hyderabad administration was unsuccessful in incorporating the Telugu chiefs and warrior class into the Mughal order.
Jan Sipar Khan served as governor for twelve years, following which he died in office. Aurangzeb appointed his son Kam Bakhsh as the new governor. Kam Bakhsh served in absentee, though he maintained an active interest in Hyderabad Subah due to the several wealthy jagirs he owned in the region. In his stead, Jan Sipar Khan's son Rustam Dil Khan was appointed as deputy, making him the effective governor of the province. Beginning in 1700, Hyderabad Subah faced several raids again by Marathas, in addition to other local chiefs. Rustam Dil Khan was unable to respond to these challenges to Mughal authority - this apparent weakness also led banditry to become a prevalent issue in the province. All these resulted in a negative impact on the economy and revenue, as well as a breakdown in the local administration. Aurangzeb reduced Rustam Dil Khan's rank in punishment, and later even removed him from his post. He was returned to his post as effective governor in 1706, as Aurangzeb found difficulty in appointing officers with experience in the region. Aurangzeb also refused to assign more troops and military resources to Hyderabad Subah, since he needed them for his campaigns in the Deccan. Hence the period began to see an administrative breakdown, as officers of the province began to act in self-preservation rather than in service of the empire.
In 1707, Aurangzeb died, triggering a war of succession. Kam Bakhsh, who with the help of his father had been building authority in Hyderabad Subah, occupied the region and crowned himself independent king of Golconda. Rustam Dil Khan was confirmed in his old position as governor; however, he had been building up vast sums of money in the province during Aurangzeb's reign. When Kam Bakhsh attempted to confiscate this, he was met with resistance from the governor, and so had him executed. Kam Bakhsh in general placed great financial pressure on the province, to secure his position as King of Golconda. However, his brother Shah Alam (recently crowned as Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah, after the defeat of his brother Azam Shah), had been marching southwards to confront him, and in a decisive battle Kam Bakhsh was killed, continuing Hyderabad's status as a subah of the Mughal Empire.
The Mughal hold on Hyderabad was generally tenuous as emperor Bahadur Shah paid more attention to the problematic provinces in the north. The political instability of the previous year made local chiefs, zamindars, deshmukhs and the like to withhold the payment of taxes, leading to a breakdown in provincial administration. Bahadur Shah appointed Yusuf Khan, an Afghan mansabdar and previous faujdar of Kurnool, as governor of the province. The major campaign of his tenure was countering the notorious bandit Papadu (sarvai Papanna), who had risen to power and status during the war of succession following Aurangzeb's death. Yusuf Khan was able to defeat Papadu, a highly publicized event in the empire. Yusuf Khan went on to deal with other rebellious local chiefs; however, his tenure was financially unstable, as his military campaigns did not yield enough money to fund themselves, and payments to his troops remained in arrears. Yusuf Khan died in 1711, following which the position of governor was empty for a year - it was eventually filled by Ibrahim Khan, but financial insolvency and administrative breakdown only accelerated.