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Kingdom of Tungning
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Kingdom of Tungning
The Kingdom of Tungning, also known as Tywan, was a dynastic maritime state that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan and the Penghu islands between 1661 and 1683. It is the first predominantly ethnic Han state in Taiwanese history. At its zenith, the kingdom's maritime power dominated varying extents of coastal regions in southeastern China and controlled the major sea lanes across both China Seas, and its vast trade network stretched from Japan to Southeast Asia.
The kingdom was founded by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) after seizing control of Taiwan from Dutch rule. Zheng hoped to restore the Ming dynasty in Mainland China, when the Ming remnants' rump state in southern China was progressively conquered by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. The Zheng dynasty used the island of Taiwan as a military base for their Ming loyalist movement which aimed to reclaim China proper from the Qing dynasty. Under Zheng rule, Taiwan underwent a process of Sinicization in an effort to consolidate the last stronghold of Han Chinese resistance against the invading Manchus. Until its annexation by the Qing dynasty in 1683, the kingdom was ruled by Koxinga's heirs, the House of Koxinga, and the period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty or the Zheng dynasty.
In reference to its reigning House of Koxinga, the Kingdom of Tungning is sometimes known as the Zheng Dynasty (Chinese: 鄭氏王朝; pinyin: Zhèngshì Wángcháo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tēⁿ – sī Ông-tiâu), Zheng clan Kingdom (鄭氏王國; Zhèngshì Wángguó; Tēⁿ – sī Ông-kok) or Yanping Kingdom (延平王國; Yánpíng Wángguó; Iân-pêng Ông-kok), named after Koxinga's hereditary title of "Prince of Yanping" (延平郡王; Yánpíng jùnwáng) that bestowed by the Yongli emperor of the Southern Ming.
Taiwan was initially referred to by Koxinga as Tungtu (東都; Dōngdū; Tang-to, literally "eastern capital"). In 1664, his son and successor Zheng Jing renamed it Tungning (東寧; Dōngníng; Tang-lêng, literally "Eastern Pacification"). This name change reflects Jing's intention to permanently settle his dominion in Taiwan rather than an unattainable hope of making Taiwan a temporary capital in the East to receive Yongli Emperor, who was executed by the Qing forces two years earlier.
In contemporary English-language accounts, it was known as Tywan, named after the King's residence at the city of "Tywan" in present-day Tainan. The period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty.
The Kingdom of Tungning started out as a Ming dynasty loyalist movement led by Zheng Chenggong, known in Dutch sources as Koxinga, the son of a former pirate-turned-general, Zheng Zhilong. After reconciling with the Ming government, Zhilong moved his headquarters from Taiwan to Fujian. Although he did not sever ties with the 30,000 Fujianese he had previously helped settle in Taiwan with Ming approval, his move eased the passage for Dutch domination over Taiwan. Zhilong then controlled a large portion of Fujian, managing trade and collecting taxes in both Xiamen and Taiwan. By 1640, Zhilong had become military commander of Fujian Province. Chenggong spent the first seven years of his life in Japan with his mother, Tagawa Matsu, and then went to school in Fujian, obtaining a county-level licentiate at the age of 15. Afterwards he left for Nanjing to study at the Imperial Academy.
On mainland China, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty forces broke through Shanhai Pass in 1644 and rapidly overwhelmed the Ming. After Beijing fell in 1644 to rebels, Chenggong and his followers declared their loyalty to the Ming dynasty and he was bestowed the title Guoxingye, or Lord of the Imperial surname, pronounced "Kok seng ia" in southern Fujianese, from which Koxinga is derived. His father Zhilong aided the Longwu Emperor in a military expedition in 1646, but Longwu was captured and executed. The Qing offered several high-ranking Ming officials and military leaders positions in exchange for cessation of resistance activities. In November 1646, Zhilong declared his loyalty to the Qing and lived out the rest of his life under house arrest in Beijing.
Zheng Chenggong continued the resistance against the Qing from Xiamen, which was named "Memorial Prefecture for the Ming" in 1654. In 1649, Chenggong gained control over Quanzhou but then lost it. Further attacks further afield resulted in even less success. In 1650 he planned a major northward offensive from Guangdong in conjunction with a Ming loyalist in Guangxi. The Qing deployed a large army to the area and Chenggong decided to take his chances by ferrying his army along the coast but a storm hindered his movements. The Qing launched a surprise attack on Xiamen, forcing him to return to protect it. From 1656 to 1658 he planned to take Nanjing. In the summer of 1658 he completed his preparations and set sail with his fleet but a storm turned him back. On July 7, 1659, Chenggong's fleet set sail again and his army encircled Nanjing on 24 August. Qing reinforcements arrived and broke Chenggong's army, forcing them to retreat to Xiamen with many of the veterans and thousands of soldiers killed or captured. In 1660 the Qing embarked on a coastal evacuation policy to starve Chenggong of his source of livelihood.
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Kingdom of Tungning
The Kingdom of Tungning, also known as Tywan, was a dynastic maritime state that ruled part of southwestern Taiwan and the Penghu islands between 1661 and 1683. It is the first predominantly ethnic Han state in Taiwanese history. At its zenith, the kingdom's maritime power dominated varying extents of coastal regions in southeastern China and controlled the major sea lanes across both China Seas, and its vast trade network stretched from Japan to Southeast Asia.
The kingdom was founded by Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) after seizing control of Taiwan from Dutch rule. Zheng hoped to restore the Ming dynasty in Mainland China, when the Ming remnants' rump state in southern China was progressively conquered by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty. The Zheng dynasty used the island of Taiwan as a military base for their Ming loyalist movement which aimed to reclaim China proper from the Qing dynasty. Under Zheng rule, Taiwan underwent a process of Sinicization in an effort to consolidate the last stronghold of Han Chinese resistance against the invading Manchus. Until its annexation by the Qing dynasty in 1683, the kingdom was ruled by Koxinga's heirs, the House of Koxinga, and the period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty or the Zheng dynasty.
In reference to its reigning House of Koxinga, the Kingdom of Tungning is sometimes known as the Zheng Dynasty (Chinese: 鄭氏王朝; pinyin: Zhèngshì Wángcháo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tēⁿ – sī Ông-tiâu), Zheng clan Kingdom (鄭氏王國; Zhèngshì Wángguó; Tēⁿ – sī Ông-kok) or Yanping Kingdom (延平王國; Yánpíng Wángguó; Iân-pêng Ông-kok), named after Koxinga's hereditary title of "Prince of Yanping" (延平郡王; Yánpíng jùnwáng) that bestowed by the Yongli emperor of the Southern Ming.
Taiwan was initially referred to by Koxinga as Tungtu (東都; Dōngdū; Tang-to, literally "eastern capital"). In 1664, his son and successor Zheng Jing renamed it Tungning (東寧; Dōngníng; Tang-lêng, literally "Eastern Pacification"). This name change reflects Jing's intention to permanently settle his dominion in Taiwan rather than an unattainable hope of making Taiwan a temporary capital in the East to receive Yongli Emperor, who was executed by the Qing forces two years earlier.
In contemporary English-language accounts, it was known as Tywan, named after the King's residence at the city of "Tywan" in present-day Tainan. The period of rule is sometimes referred to as the Koxinga dynasty.
The Kingdom of Tungning started out as a Ming dynasty loyalist movement led by Zheng Chenggong, known in Dutch sources as Koxinga, the son of a former pirate-turned-general, Zheng Zhilong. After reconciling with the Ming government, Zhilong moved his headquarters from Taiwan to Fujian. Although he did not sever ties with the 30,000 Fujianese he had previously helped settle in Taiwan with Ming approval, his move eased the passage for Dutch domination over Taiwan. Zhilong then controlled a large portion of Fujian, managing trade and collecting taxes in both Xiamen and Taiwan. By 1640, Zhilong had become military commander of Fujian Province. Chenggong spent the first seven years of his life in Japan with his mother, Tagawa Matsu, and then went to school in Fujian, obtaining a county-level licentiate at the age of 15. Afterwards he left for Nanjing to study at the Imperial Academy.
On mainland China, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty forces broke through Shanhai Pass in 1644 and rapidly overwhelmed the Ming. After Beijing fell in 1644 to rebels, Chenggong and his followers declared their loyalty to the Ming dynasty and he was bestowed the title Guoxingye, or Lord of the Imperial surname, pronounced "Kok seng ia" in southern Fujianese, from which Koxinga is derived. His father Zhilong aided the Longwu Emperor in a military expedition in 1646, but Longwu was captured and executed. The Qing offered several high-ranking Ming officials and military leaders positions in exchange for cessation of resistance activities. In November 1646, Zhilong declared his loyalty to the Qing and lived out the rest of his life under house arrest in Beijing.
Zheng Chenggong continued the resistance against the Qing from Xiamen, which was named "Memorial Prefecture for the Ming" in 1654. In 1649, Chenggong gained control over Quanzhou but then lost it. Further attacks further afield resulted in even less success. In 1650 he planned a major northward offensive from Guangdong in conjunction with a Ming loyalist in Guangxi. The Qing deployed a large army to the area and Chenggong decided to take his chances by ferrying his army along the coast but a storm hindered his movements. The Qing launched a surprise attack on Xiamen, forcing him to return to protect it. From 1656 to 1658 he planned to take Nanjing. In the summer of 1658 he completed his preparations and set sail with his fleet but a storm turned him back. On July 7, 1659, Chenggong's fleet set sail again and his army encircled Nanjing on 24 August. Qing reinforcements arrived and broke Chenggong's army, forcing them to retreat to Xiamen with many of the veterans and thousands of soldiers killed or captured. In 1660 the Qing embarked on a coastal evacuation policy to starve Chenggong of his source of livelihood.
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